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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
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A ''V' 

J 3 

A SAMURAI  AND  WIFE  OF  FORMER  TIMES. 


JAPAN 

COUNTRY,  COURT,  AND  PEOPLE 


J.  C.  CALHOUN  NEWTON,  M.A.,  D.D. 


Nashville,  Tenn.  ; Dallas,  Tex. 
Publishing  House  of  the  M.  E.  Church,  South 
Barbee  & Smith,  Agents 


iqoo 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1900, 
By  the  Book  Agents  of  the  M.  E.  Church,  South, 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


TO 

ALPHEUS  WATERS  WILSON,  D.D.,  LL.D., 

LEADER  IN  FOREIGN  MISSIONS, 

GREAT  PREACHER, 

AND 

A BISHOP  IN  THE  CHURCH  OF  GOD, 

THIS  BOOK  IS  DEDICATED 

WITH  SENTIMENTS  OF  HIGH  REGARD 


BY  THE  AUTHOR. 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  writer  of  this  book  lias  taken  advantage  of  the  oppor- 
tunities afforded  him,  while  resident  in  Japan  as  missionary 
and  engaged  in  educational  work,  to  gather  material  for  a 
comprehensive  view  of  the  country,  court,  and  people.  The 
enforced  leisure  of  a couple  of  years  has  enabled  him  to  put  it 
in  shape  and  offer  it  as  a contribution  to  a better  understand- 
ing of  that  far  Eastern  nation.  The  expedition  of  Commo- 
dore Perry,  which  in  1854  opened  the  country  to  foreign 
intercourse,  awakened  interest  in  the  character,  conditions, 
and  possible  future  of  the  people.  This  interest  has  been  in- 
tensified by  the  war  with  China  and  the  entrance  of  Japan, 
under  the  operation  of  new  treaties,  into  the  community  of 
civilized  nations.  It  is  impossible  as  yet  to  forecast  the  far- 
reaching  results  of  these  events.  They  have  already  pro- 
foundly affected  the  life  of  the  nation,  and,  in  the  nature  of 
the  case,  must  influence  its  political  and  commercial  and  even 
its  religious  relations  with  the  Western  world. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  still  substantially  a 
heathen  nation.  The  court  and  the  people  adhere  to  the  old 
faiths,  with  their  attendant  superstitions  and  consequent  deg- 
radation of  character  and  life.  It  is  true  that  there  are  many 
individual  instances  of  emancipation  from  this  bondage;  and 
it  may  even  be  said  that  there  is  a widespread,  uneasy  sense 
of  the  inadequacy  of  the  ancient  beliefs  and  worship  to  satisfy 
the  requirements  of  the  new  and  broader  life  of  these  later 
years.  It  may  be  considered  a period  of  transition.  But  it  is 
to  be  expected,  it  may  be  reckoned  as  certain,  that  strenuous 
effort  will  be  made  to  reconcile  these  larger  relations  with 
the  outside  world  and  the  higher  forms  of  thinking  and  living 
required  by  them  with  the  terms  of  the  old  religions.  The 
old  problems  worked  out  in  ancient  civilizations  to  their  in- 
evitable issues  in  disaster  and  ruin  are  to  be  tried  again  un- 
der new  conditions.  The  result  cannot  be  in  doubt.  Mean- 
time it  behooves  us  especially  of  this  Western  world  to  give 

(ix) 


X 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


close  and  careful  heed  to  the  movements  in  this  great  national 
drama,  to  get  as  true  and  thorough  insight  as  possible  into 
the  characters  and  conditions  involved  and  to  have  ourselves 
in  readiness  by  all  honorable  and  Christian  means  to  aid  in 
the  development  of  Japan  and  the  establishment  of  its  gov- 
ernment and  social  life  upon  foundations  of  righteousness 
and  truth,  the  only  foundations  which  can  insure  perpetuity. 
The  gospel  has  done  much  in  this  behalf,  but  far  more  re- 
mains to  be  done.  We  need  to  put  in  living  association 
with  these  people  the  finest  forms  of  Christian  life  and  the 
best  products  of  Christian  thought.  The  forces  of  Christian 
zeal  directed  and  controlled  by  knowledge  are  called  for;  and 
both  zeal  and  knowledge  require  a genuine,  Christlike  sym- 
pathy. It  is  the  purpose  of  this  book  to  help  in  all  these  di- 
rections. It  is  not  intended  to  supplant  the  more  elaborate 
works  which  deal  with  the  same  material.  It  is  designed  to 
bring  all  that  is  essential  to  a right  understanding  of  the 
county,  court,  and  people  of  Japan  in  comparatively  small 
compass  within  reach  of  all  who  take  interest  in  the  future  of 
the  race  and  establishment  of  the  kingdom  of  God.  It  is  sent 
forth  with  the  earnest  prayer  that  it  may  move  many  to  more 
active  and  personal  participation  in  this  vast  work  of  the 
Church  of  God.  A.  W.  Wilson. 

Baltimore,  Md.,  November  29,  1899. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 

The  Country.  page 

I.  Japan:  Where  Is  It? 1 

II.  Japan:  Its  Physiography 5 

III.  The  Flora 17 

IY.  The  Fauna 25 

Y.  Fish  in  Japanese  Waters 33 

YI.  The  Minerals 34 

k PART  II. 

CHAPTER  I. 

Mythical  and  Prehistoric  Period— From  an  Unknown 
Beginning  to  400  A.D. 

I.  Origin  of  the  World,  Gods,  and  Men 37 

II.  Racial  Origins  of  the  Japanese 41 

III.  Primitive  Life  of  the  People 42 

IY.  The  Primitive  Religion 47 

V.  Political  Ideas  and  Manner  of  Rule 54 

CHAPTER  II. 

Civilization  from  the  Continent  Brought  In. 

I.  Introduction  of  Buddhism  and  Confucianism 58 

II.  The  Chinese  Learning. . 69 

III.  Influence  of  New  Religion  and  Learning  at  Court. . . 72 

CHAPTER  III. 

Rise  of  Military  Nobles  with  Their  Clans — Overthrow 
of  the  Court  Nobles— War  of  White  and  Red  Roses. 

I.  Foundations  of  Feudalism  Laid 83 

II.  General  Progress  of  Civilization  in  This  Period 92 

(xiii) 


xiv  japan:  country,  court,  people. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Shoguns  in  Power — Emperors  Held  Down — Civil  Wars 
of  Military  Lords  (1192-1603).  PAGE 

I.  The  Duarchy  Explained  97 

II.  Yoritomo’s  Feudal  System 98 

III.  Christianity  Enters 104 

IY.  The  Spread  of  Christianity  in  This  Period 112 

Y.  Hideyoshi  the  Great — Invasion  of  Korea — Opposition 

to  the  Christians 114 

YI.  Progress  of  Civilization  During  This  Period 122 

CHAPTER  Y. 

Feudalism  Settled  under  the  Tokugawa  Shoguns — Yedo 
the  New  Military  Capital — The  Last  of 
the  Christians  (1603-38). 

I.  Founding  of  the  Tokugawa  Dynasty 128 

II.  The  Tokugawa  Era  Described 133 

1.  A Period  of  Peace 133 

2.  An  Era  of  Unification 133 

3.  Stained  with  Bloody  Persecution  of  the  Chris- 

tians (Catholics) 135 

III.  Following  Portuguese  Example,  Spaniards,  Dutch, 
and  English  Seek  Trade  with  Japan;  Finally  All 
Are  Excluded  Except  Dutch 142 

CHAPTER  YI. 

A Hermit  Nation — Civilization  of  This  Period  of 
National  Seclusion  (1638-1854). 

I.  The  People — Characteristics 153 

II.  Modes  of  Living  and  Working — Strange  Ways 154 

III.  Ranks  and  Classes  of  Society 170 

IY.  Customs  and  Manners 177 

Y.  Farming 205 

1.  Rice  Growing 207 

2.  Tea  Raising  and  Curing 210 

3.  Tobacco  and  the  Japanese  Pipe 215 

4.  Silk  Culture 216 

YI.  At  a Japanese  Inn  in  the  Olden  Time 222 

VII.  A Great  Daimyo’s  Retinue  in  the  Olden  Time 225 


CONTENTS. 


XV 


CHAPTER  VH. 

Religions  of  Japan  in  the  Nineteenth  Century.  page 

I.  The  Shinto  Religion 229 

II.  The  Buddhist  Religion  and  Ceremonies 237 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Japanese  Arts— A Sketch. 

Introductory  Remarks 247 

I.  Lacquer  Work 255 

II.  Bronze  Work  and  Sculpture 259 

III.  Painting 264 

IV.  Pottery  Wares 270 

V.  Landscape  Gardening 278 

PART  III. 

CHAPTER  I. 

Japan  in  Modern  History  (1854-1900). 
Preparations  for  the  Great  Change  from  Old  to 

New  Japan 280 

I.  The  Opening  of  the  Country  (1854)  by  Perry,  the 

American 281 

II.  Townsend  Harris,  Another  American  in  Japan 292 

III.  Stormy  Seas 304 

IV.  War  of  Revolution  and  Restoration  (1868) . 315 

V.  Christianity  Again  Comes  In 322 

CHAPTER  II. 

The  New  Japan. 

I.  Laying  New  Foundations — New  State 333 

II.  Foundation  Laying  of  the  Christian  Church  (1873-89) . . 357 

CHAPTER  III. 

Later  Developments  (1889-99.) 

The  First  Parliament  (1893) 383 

The  War  with  China  (1894) 385 


xvi  japan:  country,  court,  people. 

PAGE 

The  Results  of  the  War:  Expansion  of  Foreign  Trade — 
Internal  Improvements — Anti-Christian  Feeling  under 
Form  of  Nationalism,  Reenforced  by  Scientific  Skepti- 
cism  389 

New  Treaties,  July  17,  1899  398 

Turning  Again  to  the  Truth 400 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Intercourse  and  Friendship  between  the  United  States 
and  Japan. 

Diplomatic  and  Commercial  Relations 402 

Early  Educational  Influences  Chiefly  American 405 

CHAPTER  V. 

The  Future. 

Will  Become  a Christian  Nation — Creed  not  Sectarian — 
Reform  in  the  Orient — Her  Future  Intercourse  and 
Trade  with  the  United  States,  and  What  This  Should 
Mean  for  Asia 414 

Index 422 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


PART  I. 

THE  COUNTRY. 

I.  Japan:  Where  Is  It? 

Japan  is  an  island  empire.  It  has  more  than  one 
thousand  islands,  large  and  small.  Looking  at  the  map 
of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  we  see  that  these  islands,  in 
the  form  of  a crescent,  lie  in  the  North  Pacific  Ocean, 
off  the  eastern  shores  of  Asia.  On  the  north  it  is  sepa- 
rated from  Siberian  Russia  by  the  Okhotsk  Sea;  on  the 
west,  from  Korea  by  the  Japan  Sea,  and  from  China 
by  the  Yellow  Sea;  while  on  the  south  and  east  it  is 
washed  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  which  spreads  its  vast  ex- 
panse of  waters  to  our  American  shores. 

Looking  across  the  map  to  the  Western  Hemisphere, 
we  notice  a similarity  of  position  between  Great  Britain 
and  “ Great  Nippon,”*  with  respect  to  Europe  and  Asia 
respectively.  Great  Britain,  lying  in  the  North  Atlan- 
tic, fronts  the  coast  of  Europe;  Japan,  in  the  North 
Pacific,  fronts  Asia.  Both  are  island  empires  of  small 
size;  both  close  to  the  continental  mainland,  but  not 
of  it,  and  evidently  intended  to  be  the  great  gateways 


*The  Japanese  name  of  their  country,  called  by  foreigners 
Japan,  is  Dai  Nippon , and  means  the  “Great  Nippon.” 

(i) 


2 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


of  commerce  from  the  Atlantic  into  Europe,  and  from 
the  Pacific  into  Asia,  respectively. 

Without  desiring  to  make  too  much  of  this  point  of 
geographical  situation,  Japan’s  place  on  the  map  of  the 
world  is  greatly  to  her  advantage  in  the  ever-increasing 
trade  and  travel  between  America  and  the  far  East. 

No  other  country  is  so  long  and  narrow  as  Japan. 
Stretching  like  a sea  serpent  from  the  Kurile  chain  of 
islands  in  the  northeast  (see  map)  to  the  end  of  Formo- 
sa, south  of  the  Yellow  Sea  and  near  Southern  China, 
the  distance  is  about  two  thousand  five  hundred  miles; 
but  the  average  width  is  only  one  hundred  miles.  The 
whole  area,  Formosa  and  the  Riukius  included,  is  about 
one  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  square  miles,  being 
equal  to  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  the  two  Vir- 
ginias. The  Riukius,  once  under  the  authority  of  Chi- 
na, passed  many  years  ago  under  Japan’s  dominion; 
and  Formosa,  likewise,  was  ceded  to  her  at  the  close  of 
the  recent  Japan- China  war. 

Again  glancing  along  the  map  from  the  Aleutian 
Group,  possessions  of  the  United  States  in  the  North 
Pacific,  the  eye  passes  right  along  the  whole  length  of 
the  Japanese  sea  serpent  down  to  far  Formosa,  north 
of  the  Philippines;  so  that  both  on  the  northeastern  and 
the  southwestern  ends  of  her  island  dominions  Japan 
almost  touches  American  possessions.  A further  look  at 
the  geography,  and  we  see  that  the  long,  slender  archi- 
pelago which  we  name  Japan  is  really  only  one  section 
of  a series  of  island  groups  that  stretch  from  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  south  of  India,  to  Bering  Sea.  Japan, 
then,  is  a portion  of  the  immensely  long  ladder  laid 
down  by  the  Almighty  upon  the  ocean  and  connecting 
Southern  India  with  northern  North  America.  Each 
island  is  a round  in  the  gigantic  ladder,  the  like  of 


JAPAN:  WHERE  IS  IT? 


3 


which  is  not  found  elsewhere  in  the  world’s  geography. 
When  the  writer  first  went  to  Japan,  the  time  by  ship 
from  San  Francisco  was  twenty  days.  It  is  now  re- 
duced to  fifteen;  and  from  Vancouver,  B.  C.,  it  is  only 
thirteen.  When  the  Nicaragua  Canal  shall  have  been 
cut  through,  the  distance  between  our  Atlantic  Gulf 
Coast  and  Japan  will  be  shortened.  The  time  from 
New  York  via  Nicaragua  will  then  be  the  same  as  that 
from  Liverpool  via  the  Suez  Canal. 


SCENE  ON  THE  INLAND  SEA. 


There  are  in  the  Japan  Archipelago  four  principal 
islands,  whose  names  and  position  it  is  important  to 
remember:  Honshiu,  the  main  island,  and  lying  in  the 
center;  Yezo  (Hokkaido),  northeast  of  Honshiu;  Shi- 
koku, south,  and  Kiushiu,  southwest,  respectively,  of 
the  outstretched  foot  of  Honshiu.  The  last  two  named 
are  separated  from  Honshiu  by  the  Inland  Sea,  far  famed 
for  its  picturesque  beauty.  This  sea  is  about  six  hun- 
dred miles  long  from  east  to  west. 


CITY  OK  KOBE  FOREIGNIZEDi 


japan:  its  physiography. 


In  American  history  we  locate  on  the  map  the  early 
colonies,  as  Massachusetts,  Virginia,  and  the  Carolinas, 
and  we  are  glad  to  offer  to  our  readers  here  a map  of 
Japan.  By  the.aid  of  the  map  we  not  only  locate  the 
four  principal  islands  just  named,  but  also  the  Riu- 
kius  and  Formosa.  We  note,  too,  how  Japan  almost 
touches  Russia  in  the  north,  and  that  Korea,  a penin- 
sula of  the  continent,  is  just  next  door  to  Japan’s  west 
coast.  These  geographical  facts  all  have  meaning  that 
will  appear  later. 

The  chief  cities  are  Tokyo,  formerly  Yedo,  the  pres- 
ent capital,  with  a population  of  1,250,000;  Kioto,  the 
old  capital,  three  hundred  and  twenty-nine  miles  south- 
west, with  a population  of  280,000;  Osaka,  forty-seven 
miles  farther  southwest,  with  a population  of  500,000, 
and  in  domestic  trade  and  manufactures  the  chief  city 
of  the  empire;  besides  many  others  not  named  here, 
varying  in  population  from  200,000  down  to  25,000 
people.  Then  there  are  the  five  treaty  ports:  Yokoha- 
ma, on  Tokyo  Bay,  and  the  port  of  the  capital  for  for- 
eign commerce;  Hakodate,  on  the  Yezo  side  of  the 
Tsuruga  Channel;  Niigata,  on  the  west  coast,  a small 
place;  Kobe,  near  the  eastern  mouth  of  the  Inland  Sea, 
next  to  Yokohama  the  largest  port  for  foreign  ships  and 
trade;  and  Nagasaki,  on  the  western  end  of  Kiushiu. 
Nagasaki  is  the  nearest  port  to  Shanghai,  Hongkong, 
and  Korea. 

Besides  the  Inland  Sea,  there  is  another  inland  body 
of  water,  Lake  Biwa,  eight  miles  from  Kioto,  and  fa- 
mous in  Japanese  legend,  literature,  and  war. 

II.  Japan:  Its  Physiography. 

It  is  a land  of  mountains.  The  general  direction  of 
the  mountain  chains  is  southwest  and  northeast,  with 


UN  THE  BUNI),  KOBE. 


japan:  its  physiography. 


7 


short  ranges  and  spurs  thrown  off  abruptly  on  either 
side  of  the  long  backbone.  The  mountains  gradually 
increase  in  height  as  one  comes  from  Yezo  in  the  north, 
or  Kiushiu  in  the  south,  toward  the  center  of  the  main  is- 
land, where  Mount  Fuji,  the  sacred  mountain  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  a few  other  peaks  are  truly  Alpine.  The  moun- 
tains are  not  so  lofty  nor  so  majestic  as  the  great  Rockies, 
nor  are  they  equal  to  the  mountains  of  Western  North 
Carolina  along  the  French  Broad,  and  yet  there  is  an 
indescribable  charm  about  the  mountain  scenery  of  Ja- 
pan that  must  be  seen  to  be  appreciated.  Unlike  the 
Blue  Ridge,  the  mountains  are  broken  up  more  fre- 
quently into  single  peaks,  making  many  deep  gorges 
and  narrow  valleys.  One  is  almost  always  in  sight  of 
mountain  and  sea.  As  the  mountains  rise  near  the  sea- 
shore, the  plains  are  not  wide,  though  the  plain  of 
Kwanto  and  one  or  two  others  are  exceptions.  Kwan- 
to  (formerly  designated  Eastern  Japan)  includes  several 
provinces.  Tokyo  is  in  this  plain. 

Japan  has  been  called  the  Switzerland  of  Asia;  and 
while  her  mountains  may  not  be  so  majestic,  yet,  with 
her  seas,  bays,  and  capes,  and  hundreds  of  islets  sown 
on  every  hand,  she  is  much  more  than  Switzerland;  for 
she  combines  the  scenery  of  the  seashore,  the  island,  and 
the  mountain  in  many  striking  and  picturesque  ways. 
Her  coast  lines  are  much  indented,  giving  unexpected 
turns  to  the  contour  of  the  land  and  sea  lines. 

Her  coast  ranges  and  island  summits,  even  when  al- 
most bare  of  forest,  are  clothed  with  peculiar  beauty  and 
freshness  under  the  ever-varying  tint  of  sunshine,  sky, 
and  water,  and  seem  a picture  larger  drawn  than  any 
human  artist  can  paint. 

“The  landscape  of  modern  Japan  is  one  of  minute 
prettiness.  It  is  one  continuous  succession  of  mountains 


8 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


and  valleys.  The  irregularities  of  the  surface  render  it 
picturesque,  and  the  labors  of  centuries  have  brought 
almost  every  inch  of  the  cultivable  soil  in  the  populous 
districts  into  a state  of  high  agricultural  finish. 

The  face  of  nature  has  been  smoothed;  the  unkempt 
luxuriance  of  forest  and  undergrowth  has  been  so- 
bered.” (Griffis’s  “Mikado’s  Empire,”  p.  90.) 

The  rivers  are  all  short  and  rapid,  no  stream  being 
navigable  for  five  hundred  miles.  This  lack  of  long 
and  navigable  streams  would  be  a calamity  but  for  the 
numerous  inlets  and  windings  of  the  seacoast — bays, 
capes,  peninsulas,  promontories  affording  good  harbors 
for  all  kinds  of  shipping,  from  the  little  fishing  boats  to 
be  counted  by  the  hundreds,  to  the  great  ocean  steamers 
that  sail  from  San  Francisco  to  Kobe  and  Shanghai. 
Japan  is  evidently  marked  out  for  a great  home  trade  as 
well  as  foreign  trade.  The  fact  that  only  one-eighth 
of  the  area  is  tillable  proves  what  was  said  above:  that 
it  is  a country  of  steep  mountains  and  narrow  plains. 

Xo  one  living  in  the  country  for  a while  needs  to 
be  told  that  it  is  a land  of  volcanoes  and  earthquakes. 
There  are  hundreds  of  extinct  volcanoes,  and  eight- 
een are  now  active.  In  fact,  Japan  is  a slender  vol- 
canic rim  of  land,  the  volcanoes  being  huge  funnels 
turned  upside  down,  the  craters  being  the  vents  whence 
at  any  time  may  burst  forth  the  pent-up  fires  below. 
At  intervals  during  the  centuries  streams  of  lava  have 
flamed  out  from  those  gigantic  funnels,  flowing  down 
the  heights  and  into  the  neighboring  valleys,  while  great 
volumes  of  steam  were  driving  clouds  of  ashes  upward 
or  shooting  masses  of  hot  stone  high  into  the  air,  ob- 
scuring the  sun  by  day  or  the  moon  by  night  and  darken- 
ing the  heavens,  or  else  ever  and  anon  lighting  them  with 
billowy  flames  of  awful  portent.  Sometimes  the  ashes 


japan:  its  physiography. 


9 


and  stones  are  seized  by  the  winds  and  driven  to  a great 
distance.  No  one  can  tell  when  a volcano  is  going  to 
burst  forth  or  an  earthquake  make  the  earth  to  tremble. 
Whether  entirely  dead  apparently,  or  whether  at  the 
bottom  of  the  crater  the  water  is  scarcely  boiling,  and 
sulphurous  fumes  slowly  rising,  in  either  case  there  may 
be  a sudden  breaking  forth  of  fiery  forces  that  will 
spread  death  all  around  and  strike  terror  to  the  hearts 
of  the  few  men  or  beasts  who  may  have  escaped  with 
their  lives.  One  thing  we  know:  there  is  some  kind  of 
connection  between  the  earthquakes  and  the  volcanoes. 
That  is,  when  there  has  been  a period  of  frequent  earth- 
quakes, if  the  fires  locked  up  under  the  ground  can  find 
vent  through  some  volcanic  eruption,  then  the  earth- 
quakes cease.  When  the  writer  resided  in  Tokyo,  ten 
years  ago,  there  was  a period  of  unusual  earthquake 
activity  by  day  and  by  night.  Before  breakfast  and  be- 
tween meals,  and  in  the  night  we  were  often  suddenly 
aroused  by  the  shaking  of  the  bed  and  other  disturb- 
ances of  the  house;  but  suddenly  they  ceased.  The  rea- 
son, as  we  learned,  was  that  a volcano  had  broken  forth 
in  that  region  of  Japan. 

Fuji  Yama  ( yama , “mountain”),  rising  majestically 
from  the  plain  of  Quanto,  sixty  miles  south  of  Tokyo,  is 
over  twelve  thousand  feet  high.  This  snow-headed  giant, 
like  a proud  monarch  unconquered,  lifting  its  head  far 
above  all  the  surrounding  plain  and  away  up  into  the 
clouds,  and  looking  so  solid,  massive,  and  restful,  has 
more  than  once  been  the  scene  of  terrible  fires  and  smoke 
bursting  out  from  its  hidden  depths.  The  last  eruption 
occurred  in  1707.  We  are  told  how  at  that  time  the 
floating  clouds  of  ashes  turned  day  into  night,  how  the 
red-hot  stones  flew  hissing  through  the  air,  and  of  fields, 
temples,  and  villages  that  were  covered  with  debris. 


(10) 


FUJIYAMA  (SACRED  MOUNTAIN). 


JAPAN:  ITS  PHYSIOGRAPHY. 


11 


Mount  Fuji  is  visible  from  Tokyo,  and  is  truly  mag- 
nificent, looming  up  across  the  distant  spaces  in  solitary 
grandeur.  From  the  decks  of  ships  entering  the  Bay  of 
Tokyo,  or  sailing  southward  along  the  coast  from  Yo- 
kohama to  Kobe,  passengers  are  always  eager  to  get  a 
glimpse  of  the  celebrated  mountain.  If  the  sky  is  clear, 
no  one  is  disappointed.  To  the  Japanese  it  is  a sacred 
mount,  and  hundreds  of  pious  pilgrims  visit  yearly  the 
temple  built  upon  it,  thinking  it  the  privilege  of  a life- 
time to  worship  the  rising  sun  from  that  sacred  place  so 
high  above  the  sordid  world  beneath.  Standing  guard 
over  all  the  provinces  of  the  Kwanto  plain,  and  covered 
with  perpetual  snow,  it  has  been  the  frequent  subject  of 
poems  and  romances,  and  draAvs  to  itself  the  admiration 
of  the  whole  nation.  It  is  the  embodiment  of  their  idea 
of  grace,  simplicity,  peace,  and  grandeur,  as  the  follow- 
ing lines  show: 

There  on  the  border,  where  land  of  Kaki 
Doth  touch  the  frontier  of  Suruga's  land, 

A beauteous  proAunce  stretching  on  either  hand; 

The  clouds  of  heaven  in  reArerent  wonder  pause, 

Kor  may  the  birds  those  giddy  heights  essay, 

Or  thy  fierce  fires  he  quenched  beneath  the  snow; 

, What  name  might  fitly  tell,  what  accents  sing, 

Thine  awful,  godlike  grandeur? 

’Tis  thy  breast 

That  holdeth  Narusha’s  flood  at  rest, 

Thy  side,  whence  Tusikawa’s  Avaters  spring; 

Great  Fujiyama,  toAvering  to  mortal  men, 

A god — protector  Avatching  o’er  all  Japan, 

On  thee  forever  let  me  feast  mine  eyes. 

(“Manyoshu,”  translated  by  Prof.  Chamberlain.) 

The  south  side  of  Mt.  Fuji  slopes  right  down  to  the 
sea,  and  is  not  accessible.  The  circumference  of  the 
base  is  sixty-five  miles,  and  scattered  around  it  are 


12 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


five  lakes.  Toward  the  summit  there  is  a series 
of  crests  till  you  reach  the  highest  one,  which  is  an 
enormous  rim  surrounding  the  crater.  Being  an  extinct 
volcano,  there  is  inside  the  crater  a level  space  of  about 
two  and  one-half  square  miles,  with  a sink  in  the  center, 
from  the  bottom  of  which  slowly  escapes  green  vapor  or 
steam.  According  to  legend,  Fuji  rose  up  in  a single 
night,  while  according  to  the  same  legend,  Lake  Biwa, 
near  Kioto,  was  formed  the  same  night  by  a great  sink- 
ing of  the  ground.  Probably  false,  it  is  to  them  a beau- 
tiful legend  that  their  grandest  mountain  and  most 
beautiful  lake  were  both  born  in  a night.  Fujiyama, 
once  seen,  is  never  forgotten.  The  impression  always 
made  upon  the  writer  whenever  he  has  gazed  upon  it  is 
that  of  calm  majesty.  Surrounded  by  the  struggling 
world,  in  sight  of  the  foaming,  beating  waves  of  the 
sea,  Mount  Fuji  seems  ever  peaceful,  strong,  sublime. 

The  earthquake  is  sometimes  only  less  awful  and  de- 
structive than  the  volcanic  eruption.  ‘ ‘ They  are  events, ” 
says  Rein,  “against  which  man  can  in  no  way  pre- 
pare himself.  They  are  of  all  grades  as  to  movement 
and  force,  from  the  slight  tremor  scarcely  perceived  by 
a busy  person  to  the  violent  shock  that  shatters  rocks, 
upheaves  the  earth  or  suddenly  sinks  the  ground,  and 
lays  villages  and  towns  in  ruins.”  According  to  a myth- 
ical story  believed  in  by  the  lower  classes,  there  is  in 
the  great  deep  a giant  fish  which  in  its  anger  strikes 
against  the  coast,  making  the  land  to  tremble.  Accord- 
ing to  another  belief,  a great  monster  is  under  Japan, 
whose  gyrations  shake  the  land. 

The  story  of  the  earthquakes  and  the  havoc  wrought  by 
them  from  685  A.D.  to  the  last  one  in  1892  is  a terrible 
chapter.  The  traditions  teem  with  them.  In  1703  an 
earthquake,  followed  by  a great  fire,  destroyed  nearly 


JAPAN:  ITS  PHYSIOGRAPHY. 


13 


all  of  Yedo  (Tokyo);  and  in  1830  Kioto  was  visited  by 
an  earthquake  that  roared  like  thunder,  overturning 
most  of  the  houses  and  killing  thousands  of  people. 
Again,  in  1855,  Yedo  was  destroyed  by  earthquakes,  the 
horrors  of  which  still  live  in  the  minds  of  the  oldest 
people.  It  is  said  that  over  one  hundred  thousand 
people  perished  and  the  city  was  turned  into  ruins. 

The  last  destructive  earthquake,  in  1892,  was  in  the 
region  of  Gifu,  Osaka,  and  other  cities  on  the  Imperial 
railway  fronpTokyo  to  Kobe.  This  earthquake  caused 
all  sorts  of  strange  and  terrible  things,  rumbling  noises 
underground,  openings  in  the  earth,  upheavals  in  one 
place  and  sinkings  in  another,  breaking  of  river  embank- 
ments, twisting  of  railroad  bridges,  the  scattering  of  sand 
and  mud  over  the  rice  fields,  the  overturning  of  houses, 
followed  by  a fire  that  consumed  them,  many  people  being 
caught  by  falling  timbers.  Houses  demolished,  62,091; 
people  killed  or  wounded,  9,330.  A fire  usually  follows 
such  violent  earthquakes,  for  the  reason  that  when  the 
house  is  overturned  the  fire  box,  or  brasier,  nearly  always 
ignites  the  light,  combustible  material  inside  Japanese 
dwellings.  The  result  is  that  many  who  are  caught  or 
stunned  by  the  falling  debris  are  burned  to  death. 

The  writer  remembers  distinctly  the  earthquake  just 
mentioned.  It  extended  south  as  far  as  Kobe,  but  with 
less  violence.  It  was  in  the  early  morning,  and  he  was 
saying  his  prayers.  Having  experienced  many  such  a 
few  years  before  in  Tokyo,  he  was  at  first  not  inclined 
to  be  disturbed,  but  in  an  instant  the  shaking  became  too 
violent  for  edifying,  devotions — a rush  was  made  into  the 
open.  The  trees  were  shaking  and  the  ground  was  un- 
dulating like  a field  of  waving  wheat  under  the  blowing 
of  the  wind.  It  was  a frightful  time,  but  was  soon  over. 

Japan  is  also  subject  to  inundations.  In  1895  the 


14 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


coast  northward  of  Sendai  was  visited  by  an  awful  flood- 
ing from  the  sea  that  swept  away  scores  of  fishermen’s 
villages  and  destroyed  about  thirty  thousand  people ! Off 
that  coast,  under  the  sea,  was  a mighty  upheaval  that 
threw  the  waves  mountain  high  upon  the  land  with  force 
strong  enough  to  sweep  away  .every  village.  Repeated 
two  or  three  times,  as  the  tidal  waves  receded  they  car- 
ried out  into  the  sea  people  and  houses.  It  is  a fact  not 
generally  known  in  this  country  that  the  violent  earth- 
quakes and  upheavals  send  a tremor  half  around  the 
globe,  and  that  Prof.  Millne’s  earthquake  instruments 
in  England  registered  a slight  movement.  This  shows 
that  the  whole  earth  is  connected  inside  by  electric  or 
other  equally  mysterious  currents.  These  awful  nat- 
ural evils,  as  earthquakes,  volcanoes,  and  inundations, 
like  many  other  things  that  afflict  and  destroy  men,  are 
hard  to  be  understood. 

The  hot  springs  of  Japan  are  unrivaled  by  those  of  any 
other  country.  They  are  distributed  in  every  section 
from  north  to  south,  the  sulphur  springs  being  more  nu- 
merous in  the  districts  of  volcanoes.  Some  of  them  are 
very  hot,  and  in  a few  of  them  there  is  a hissing  sound 
and  sulphur  vapors,  reminders  of  once-active  volcanoes. 
In  some  instances  there  are  cracks  in  the  earth  from 
which  issue  hot  fumes  where  Japanese  invalids  sit  for 
hours,  hoping  for  cures.  To  the  superstitious  these 
openings  in  the  earth  are  connected  with  the  ‘ 4 bad  place  ” 
down  below  and  are  so  named;  for  example,  at  Beppu, 
in  Kiushiu,  one  is  named  o-jigoku  (“great  hell  ”);  anoth- 
er, ho-jigoku  (“  little  hell  ”).  The  most  frequented  are  at 
Arima,  in  the  mountains  back  of  Kobe.  Thither  many 
invalids  flock  every  season,  either  to  drink  the  cold 
mineral  waters  or  bathe  in  the  hot,  and  both  are  good 
for  divers  ailments. 


japan:  its  physiography. 


15 


The  climate  of  Japan,  as  in  every  other  country,  is  an 
important  factor  in  the  life  of  its  people.  It  affects- 
vegetation  more  than  any  other  one  thing.  As  compared 
with  the  United  States,  the  atmosphere  is  very  damp,  a 
result  due  to  the  existence  of  so  many  islands  immediate- 
ly surrounded  by  seas.  In  consequence  the  summer 
heat  is  sultry,  oppressive;  the  winter  cold  is  raw  and 
pierces  into  the  bones.  Thus  the  extremes  of  heat  and 
cold,  though  not  so  marked  by  the  thermometer,  are 
keenly  felt  by  the  body.  There  is  a lack  of  thunder 
and  thunderstorms,  due,  it  is  said,  to  the  lack  of  elec- 
tricity in  the  atmosphere.  Whether  this  be  true  or  not, 
there  is  a lack  of  something  which  the  student  is  accus- 
tomed to  in  America,  and  which  he  finds  needful  to  sus- 
tain his  nervous  energies  in  hard  study.  Not  only  do 
foreigners,  but  Japanese  students  as  well,  have  much 
trouble  from  the  ‘ 4 sick  head.  ” 

There  are  also  wide  extremes  of  climate  between  sec- 
tions not  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  apart.  For  in- 
stance, the  southern  coasts  are  almost  tropical,  while 
the  northwest  coast  is  in  winter  piled  with  snow  ten  to 
twelve  feet  deep.  The  northwest  coast  is  swept  by 
currents  from  the  Okhotsk  Sea  and  by  winds  from  Siberia 
(messengers  of  the  frigid  zone),  chilling  the  moisture 
into  snow;  whereas  the  south  and  southeast  coasts  are 
warmed  by  the  Black  Current  (Kuroshio),  that  rises  in 
the  hot,  equatorial  regions..  This  warm  current,  so 
similar  to  the  Gulf  Stream  of  the  Atlantic  both  as  to 
its  origin  and  characteristics,  flows  northward  by  the 
island  of  Formosa,  strikes  the  southern  shores  of  Kiu- 
shiu,  where  its  main  stream  bends  eastward,  flows  along 
the  eastern  coast  of  Japan  till  it  turns  again  in  a more 
easterly  direction,  passing  along  south  of  the  Aleutian 
Islands  and  on  toward  the  coasts  of  North  America. 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


16 

The  Black  Current  is  so  named  because  in  the  sunshine 
its  waters  are  blue,  which  the  Japanese  sailors  do  not 
distinguish  from  black.  Its  temperature,  speed,  and 
volume  all  decrease  as  it  flows  northward.  Origina- 
ting,  like  our  Gulf  Stream,  in  equatorial  regions,  and 
taking  direction  from  the  earth’s  turning  on  its  axis 
and  certain  projecting  coasts,  influenced,  too,  by  the 
monsoons,  this  warm,  black  current  is  worth  millions 
to  Japan,  just  as  the  Gulf  Stream  is  to  England.  It 
helps  to  make  a semitropical  climate  and  productions 
along  the  southeast  coast. 

Winds  also  have  much  to  do  with  climate.  The 
northeast  winds  from  Siberia  and  the  northeastern 
from  the  Kuriles  are  freighted  with  cold,  whereas  the 
south  and  southeastern  winds  are  heat  bringers.  There 
is  a wind,  called  the  typhoon,  dreaded  of  all  sailors.  It 
originates  somewhere  in  the  region  of  the  Philippines 
(see  map),  and  prevails  in  August  and  September.  It 
has  a circular  movement  around  a moving  center , and  if 
a ship  is  caught  too  near  that  center,  woe  is  unto  it. 
At  Kobe,  where  it  is  less  severe,  the  writer  has  known 
it  to  blow  at  intervals  for  several  days  in  one  direction. 
Occasionally  whole  fleets  of  fishing  boats  are  ’wrecked 
in  these  cyclones  of  the  sea,  and  great  ocean  steamers 
do  not  always  escape  unhurt. 

The  one  delightful  season  in  Japan  is  the  autumn, 
say  from  September  15  to  December  15.  During  this 
period  the  weather  is  simply  unsurpassed.  It  would 
be  difficult  to  imagine  how  it  could  in  any  way  be  im- 
proved. The  sky  is  usually  perfectly  clear,  atmosphere 
bracing;  and  the  glorious  sunshine,  reflected  from  the 
sea,  or  touching  the  neighboring  mountains  with  em- 
pyreal splendor,  baptizes  the  whole  landscape  with  a 
wealth  of  varying  tints  and  shadows  of  yellow  brown 


THE  FLORA. 


17 


grass,  reddened  leaf,  overarching  sky,  and  changing 
tides.  The  scene  is  varied  yet  again  by  temple  groves 
of  pines,  clumps  of  waving  bamboo,  and  evergreen  ca- 
mellias and  palms  that  dot  the  landscape. 

Dust  storms  do  not  generally  prevail  in  Japan  as  in 
China  and  West  Texas,  but  in  Tokyo  there  is  much 
wind  and  dust.  The  rainy  season  varies  in  different 
parts.  In  Central  and  Southern  Japan  it  begins  in 
June,  continuing  for  forty  or  fifty  days.  It  is  the 
summer  rains  that  make  the  vegetation  so  luxuriant. 
It  is  the  frequent  change  from  shower  to  sunshine  in 
the  same  day  that  produces  the  steamy  weather  so 
disagreeable,  that  injures  books,  and  makes  shoes  and 
even  clothing  to  mold  overnight. 

III.  The  Flora. 

In  the  wealth  and  variety  of  the  vegetable  kingdom 
this  island  empire  offers  an  interesting  field  to  those  who 
study  botany.  More  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  years 
ago  the  Dutch  surgeons  and  physicians  stationed  at  the 
Dutch  trading  post  at  Nagasaki  used  to  write  about  the 
jffants  of  Japan,  and  thus  they  became  known  to  the 
scientific  circles  of  Europe.  Of  course  those  Dutch- 
men wrote  in  Latin.  The  Japanese,  too,  both  by  their 
genuine  love  of  nature  and  by  reason  of  the  Chinese 
system  of  medicine  so  long  in  vogue,  were  led  to  give 
close  attention  to  plants  and  flowers. 

What  impresses  the  traveler  in  Japan  is  the  freshness 
of  the  landscape,  and  this  in  spite  of  the  scarcity  of 
forests.  It  is  the  predominance  of  pines,  firs,  crvpto- 
merias,  and  cedars  that  gives  to  the  thinly  scattered 
forests  at  the  foot  and  up  the  sides  of  the  hills  and 
mountains  their  fresh  aspect.  Besides,  there  are  so 
many  smaller  evergreens.  From  Tokyo  southward 


18 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


these  evergreens  are  to  be  seen:  the  bamboo  in  groves; 
the  orange  orchards,  the  commonest  sight;  the  tea  bushes 
with  dark  green  leaves  and  white  blossoms  with  yellow 
center;  camellias  with  dark  glossy  leaves  and  red, 
white,  and  variegated  blossoms;  the  palm  with  straight 
shaft  and  tufted  crown,  besides  others  not  mentioned  here. 

The  most  common  trees  are  the  pine,  cedar,  maple, 
oak  (two  kinds),  mulberry,  persimmon,  and  willow. 
The  following  are  also  common  in  Japan,  but  rarely 
found  in  the  United  States:  Cryptomeria;  red-leaved 
maple,  keyaki,  a hard  wood  of  fine  quality;  kiri,  used 
for  making  wooden  sandals;  hinoki,  a kind  of  cross  be- 
tween a pine  and  a poplar;  lacquer  tree,  a species  of  su- 
mach; camphor  and  tallow  trees;  eucalyptus  tree,  an 
evt  ■'vr»  that  furnishes  an  aromatic  sap,  said  to  be  an- 
timalarial,  leaves  bluish  green;  the  bamboo,  which  is 
more  properly  a cane;  and,  finally,  the  wistaria,  a 
heavy  vine. 

Nearly  all  of  their  domesticated  plants  were  brought 
from  Korea,  China,  or  India,  such  as  rice,  tea,  and 
mulberry  (silk),  the  three  staple  products;  the  five  ce- 
reals, wheat,  barley,  beans,  millet,  and  sorghum;  the 
vegetables,  as  daikon,  eggplant,  turnips,  onions,  toma- 
toes, and  potatoes  (sweet).  The  fruit  trees  are  not  so 
numerous  as  with  us,  though  by  importation  from 
America  and  Europe  they  have  been  increased  since  the 
opening  of  the  country,  thirty  years  ago. 

The  orange  and  the  persimmon  deserve  mention.  The 
orange  is  smaller  than  that  of  California,  is  grown  in 
great  abundance,  and  is  better  adapted  to  table  use  on. 
account  of  its  lobed  meat,  and  thin,  loose  skin.  The 
persimmon,  unlike  the  American  product  — the  old 
field  and  opossum  variety — is  large  and  luscious,  and 
has  been  developed  by  culture  into  several  distinct  va- 


THE  FLORA. 


19 


rieties.  Besides  being  highly  prized  by  foreigners  for 
table  fruit,  the  Japanese  dry  and  pack  them  somewhat 
after  the  manner  of  treating  figs.  Many  of  the  or- 
anges, as  well  as  the  persimmons,  are  seedless.  Ap- 
ples, peaches,  grapes,  apricots,  and  strawberries  have 
been  introduced  into  the  country,  but,  excepting  the 
grape,  are  not  used  much.  The  fruits  just  named,  ex- 
cept the  grape,  gradually  lose  some  of  their  fine  flavor 
when  grown  in  China  and  Japan.  This  is  due  perhaps 
to  the  excessive  moisture. 

Meadow  grasses,  strange  to  say,  are  almost  unknown 
: — strange  indeed,  when  Japan  clover  is  the  name  of  a 
grass  that  has  been  introduced  into  our  own  Southland 
since  the  late  civil  war.  And  yet  it  is  not  strange  when 
one  recalls  the  fact  that,  excepting  fish,  the  Japanese, 
under  the  influence  of  Buddhism,  quit  eating  T cen- 
turies ago,  and  the  further  fact  that  tillable  ground  is 
too  scarce  in  that  country  to  allow  meadows  and  cattle 
grazing.  The  island  of  Yezo  will  probably  become  a 
grass  and  cattle  growing  section.  Apples  too  have  been 
introduced  there  from  America  and  grown  with  some 
success. 

The  wild  flowers  are  abundant  and  of  brilliantly  va- 
ried colors.  The  ferns  too  are  numerous  and  of  every 
size  and  variety.  The  morning-glory  has,  it  is  said,  one 
hundred  and  twenty  varieties.  To  the  wild  flowers  add 
a class  of  flowering  shrubs  which  in  America  we  culti- 
vate, but  which  grow  also  wild  in  Japan — namely,  azalias, 
camellias,  peonies,  hydrangeas,  irises,  and  chrysanthe- 
mums. Among  the  cultivated  flowers  the  chrysanthe- 
mum is  first.  It  is  the  national  flower  of  Japan,  the 
imperial  crest  being  the  golden  chrysanthemum  with 
sixteen  petals.  It  has  been  carried  to  the  highest  de- 
gree of  perfection. 


20 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


Quoting  from  Prof.  Chamberlain’s  description  of 
chrysanthemum  gardens  in  Tokyo  (“Things  Japanese,” 
p.  1 19) : 4 4 The  mere  variety  is  amazing.  There  is  not  only 
every  color,  hut  every  shajje.  Some  of  the  blossoms 
are  immense.  Some  are  like  large  snowballs,  the  petals 
all  smooth  and  turned  in,  one  on  the  top  of  another. 
Others  resemble  the  tousled  head  of  a Scotch  terrier. 
Some  have  long  filaments  stretched  out  like  starfish, 
and  some,  to  counterbalance  the  giants,  have  tiny  petals, 
as  if  they  were  drooping  hairs.  The  strangest  thing  of 
all  is  the  sight  of  five  or  six  kinds,  of  various  colors  and 
sizes,  growing  together  on  the  same  plant.  Last  No- 
vember there  were  several  plants  with  over  three  hun- 
dred blossoms;  one  had  four  hundred  and  seventeen. 
In  other  plants  the  triumph  was  just  the  opposite.  The 
whole  energies  of  the  plant  are  concentrated  in  pro- 
ducing a single  blossom.  But  Avhat  a blossom!  One 
tawny,  disheveled  monster  of  a chrysanthemum  is 
called  ‘Sleepy  Head.’  Each  variety  has  a quaint  name. 
One  is  the  4 Fisher’s  Lantern,’  a dark  russet;  or  the 
4 Robe  of  Feathers,’  a richly  clustering  pink  and  white; 
or,  loveliest  of  all,  the  4 Starlit  Night,’  a delicately 
fretted  creature  like  Iceland  moss  covered  with  frost.” 
The  plum  and  cherry  are  cultivated  for  their  floAvers. 
The  cherry  atones  for  its  unfaithfulness  in  not  bearing 
fruit  by  affording  admiration  to  the  festal  crowds  who 
go  forth  to  see  its  heavy  banks  of  double  blossoms. 

Plum  orchards  are  also  much  cultivated  and  admired 
for  the  red,  pink,  and  white  blossoms.  The  red-leaved 
maple  is  likewise  planted  in  groups  or  rows,  and  much 
admired  for  its  44  scarlet  foliage.” 

Beside  the  flowering  plants  that  grow  on  land  there  are 
many  beautiful  water  lilies;  and  there  is  the  far-famed 
lotus,  with  its  round,  large  leaf  lying  for  many  days 


THE  FLORA. 


21 


fiat  upon  the  bosom  of  the  water,  and  its  cuplike  flower 
perched  upon  the  tall,  graceful  stem.  The  lotus  is  sa- 
cred to  Buddha,  and  is  much  prized  in  art  as  well. 

The  flowers  are  being  increased  by  importing  new  ones 
from  America  and  Europe,  such  as  roses  and  geraniums. 
Japanese  flowers  have  little  fragrance,  but  it  is  a mis- 
take to  say  they  have  none. 

It  is  a remarkable  fact  that  the  vegetable  kingdom  of 
Japan  possesses  not  only  a greater  number  of  species 
than  any  other  known  region  of  equal  area — say  three 
thousand — but  also  a greater  number  and  difference  of 
genera.  Nor  is  this  all,  for  while  there  are  many  spe- 
cies found  also  in  China,  the  Himalayas,  and  tropical  In- 
dia, it  is  both  surprising  and  interesting  that  the  whole 
vegetable  kingdom  of  Japan  is  strikingly  similar  to  that 
of  the  Appalachian  system  of  the  United  States  and  the 
plains  of  Canada.  The  flora  of  Japan  is  like  that  of  the 
Atlantic  region  of  North  America  rather  than  the  Pa- 
cific. This  is  very  strange. 

Prof.  Cray,  the  famous  American  botanist,  says:  “No 
part  of  the  world,  beyond  his  own  country,  offers,  as  to 
its  vegetation,  a greater  interest  to  the  botanist  of  the 
United  States  than  Japan,  for  there  are  very  remarkable 
relations  which  subsist  between  the  flora  of  Japan  and 
that  of  the  United  States. 

Before  quitting  the  flora,  so  remarkably  developed  in 
the  Japanese  Archipelago,  a few  words  must  be  said 
about  the  fine  cryptomerias,  a species  of  cedar,  the 
beautiful  bamboo  groves,  and  the  wistarias.  The  cryp- 
tomerias are  often  seen  in  temple  and  other  groves. 
Like  the  pine,  they  frequently  grow  one  hundred  feet 
high  and  twelve  feet  in  circumference.  There  is  a 
magnificent  grove  near  the  Shiba  temples  in  Tokyo. 
There  is  a proverb  which  says,  “No  one  can  say  kekko , 


22 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


4 beautiful,  ’ till  lie  has  seen  Nikko.”  The  writer,  having 
never  seen  Nikko,  can  only  repeat  what  others  say  who 
have.  Nikko  is  eighty  miles  north  of  Tokyo. 

The  tomb  of  the  great  Iyeyasu,  founder  of  the  Toku- 
gawa  dynasty,  is  there;  and  all  that  nature  and  art  could 
do  has  made  it  the  most  famous  place  in  Japan  as  re- 
gards scenery.  The  neighborhood  around  is  marked 
by  very  luxuriant  and  varied  vegetation.  The  court 
of  the  temple-tomb  is  adorned  with  a sacred  grove  of 
cryptomerias  of  great  height  and  size.  The  road  lead- 
ing to  this  temple  is  lined  on  either  side  for  a distance 
of  twenty-live  miles  with  those  fine  trees,  which  become 
more  stately  as  you  approach  the  great  Shogun’s  tomb, 
and,  according  to  Rein,  “is  an  incomparably  beautiful 
and  magnificent  avenue.” 

The  bamboo  cane  came  originally  from  India,  and  is 
now  found  in  Japan  in  several  species.  One  small 
kind  that  grows  to  a finger’s  thickness  is  prized  for 
the  thick  hedges  made  of  it.  Another  kind  when 
young  has  spots,  and  when  old  turns  almost  black, 
and  is  highly  prized  for  walking  sticks,  whistles, 
etc.,  and  is  sent  to  other  countries.  But  the  large  or 
male  bamboo  is  a tree  in  height,  if  not  in  thickness. 
It  is  most  valuable.  In  rich,  damp  soil  at  the  foot  or 
on  the  side  of  hills  it  grows  to  a height  of  seventy-five 
or  one  hundred  feet,  with  a diameter  of  from  three  to 
six  inches.  Of  course,  like  all  th.e  cane  family,  it  is 
hollow,  jointed,  has  a shaft  perfectly  straight,  and  no 
branches  except  toward  the  top.  It  splits  easily  into 
lengths  of  fifty  feet,  and  as  thin  as  you  wish  to  have 
them,  and  besides  it  is  hard,  durable,  and  elastic.  It 
combines  more  desirable  qualities  than  any  other  wood 
growth  known  to  man. 

Its  rapid  growth  is  a wonder.  The  shoots,  appearing 


BAMBOO  GROVE. 


(23) 


24 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


just  above  ground  in  a night,  within  a week  in  good 
soil  reach  a height  of  twenty  to  thirty  feet.  The 
shoots  when  tender  and  boiled  well  are  much  enjoyed 
as  a spring  vegetable.  Growing  in  clumps,  the  shafts 
straight  as  an  arrow,  the  tiny  branches  at  the  top  bear 
lanceolate  leaves,  so  that  in  the  distance  the  foliage 
has  a-  floating,  feathery  appearance.  As  the  whole 
grove  bends  and  waves  to  the  winds,  the  feathery  foli- 
age of  each  tree  touching  and  blending  with  the  rest,  it 
graces  the  landscape  with  a charm  unlike  anything  seen 
in  our  country.  Seeing  that  it  would  be  almost  im- 
possible for  the  Japanese  to  live  without  the  bam- 
boo, some  one  has  called  the  civilization  of  that  in- 
teresting country  the  “bamboo  civilization.”  For  as 
to  them  no  other  food  is  so  important  as  rice,  so  no 
other  wood  growth  is  as  needful  as  the  bamboo. 

The  uses  of  the  bamboo  are  so  many  and  so  varied  it  is 
impossible  to  name  them  all.  We  mention  the  follow- 
ing: for  food,  walking  sticks,  whistles,  flutes,  handles 
of  writing,  painting,  tooth,  and  dusting  brushes,  ladder 
beams,  rafters,  laths,  palings,  posts,  stakes,  • poles, 
props,  scaffolding,  rudder  posts,  masts,  flagstaff s,  Ash- 
ing rods,  yardsticks,  rules,  shoulder  sticks  for  peddlers 
and  water  carriers,  breastplate  of  armor,  spears,  fen- 
cing swords,  roof  and  eave  gutters,  water  pipes,  pumps, 
pails,  dippers,  spittoons,  pencil  holders,  flower  vases, 
chopsticks,  ladles,  hats,  cages,  sieves,  chairs,  litters, 
bedsteads,  tables,  stands,  bric-a-brac,  mats,  covers,  sails, 
picture  frames,  screens,  fans,  baskets  of  all  kinds,  boxes, 
lattices,  hedges,  fences,  rice  bag  probes,  money  holders, 
napkin  rings,  curtain  rings  and  poles,  palanquins,  and 
pipe  stems.  The  praises  of  the  bamboo  are  often  sung 
by  Japanese  and  Chinese  poets,  and  it  is  a favorite  sub- 
ject with  their  artists  on  screens  and  wall  kakemonoes. 


THE  FAUNA. 


25 


The  wistaria,  introduced  from  China,  is  an  old  and  sa- 
cred ornamental  vine.  In  some  places  it  grows  to  a 
great  size,  is  long-lived,  and  runs  to  an  almost  incredi- 
ble length.  The  flowers  begin  to  appear  in  June,  and 
when  full  grown  hang  in  dense,  fragrant  clusters  of 
purple,  purplish  white,  and  pure  white,  and  sometimes 
reach  a length  of  two  to  three  feet. 

Among  all  the  famous  flower-viewing  resorts  of 
Japan,  none  enjoys  a greater  popularity  than  the  tem- 
ple garden  of  Kameido,  in  the  suburbs  of  Tokyo,  with 
its  celebrated  wistaria  blossoms.  Running  to  a great 
length,  this  flowering  vine  is  particularly  adapted  to 
all  kinds  of  trellises,  arbors,  courts,  and  passage  ways. 
Trained  on  horizontal  arbors,  the  long  pendent  clus- 
ters give  to  the  overhead  a striking  appearance;  like- 
wise on  the  sides  of  bowers  they  make  beautiful  fes- 
toons, especially  upon  overarching  entrances.  The 
Japanese  are  too  appreciative  of  the  beautiful  not  to 
prize  the  wistaria  among  many  other  ornamental  plants. 

IV.  The  Fauna. 

The  domestic  animals  are  few.  Sheep,  hogs,  mules, 
goats,  and  asses  are  rarely  seen.  Horses  are  few  and 
are  unsightly,  small,  vicious,  and  awkward  in  move- 
ment, but  very  hardy.  The  cows  are  of  the  East  In- 
dies breed,  black  and  small-sized,  but  well  formed. 
Like  all  Buddhist  countries,  meat  eating  is  not  encour- 
aged; cattle  raising  in  Japan  is  far  behind  agriculture. 
Cows  are  not  therefore  generally  raised  for  beef,  milk, 
and  butter,  but  for  plowing,  drawing  the  two- wheeled 
cart,  or  for  pack  saddle  purposes.  It  is  no  uncommon 
thing,  at  least  in  the  region  of  Kobe,  to  see  a line  of 
cows  or  bullocks,  each  with  bags  of  rice  upon  the  back, 
slowly  moving  along  the  highway  to  town,  the  rice  mill, 


26 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


or  the  rice  brewery;  or  hitched  to  the  carts  going  to 
the  same  places.  For  all  these  uses  the  cow  is  very 
slow,  but  trusty.  Only  occasionally  when  suddenly 
meeting  a foreigner  at  the  turn  of  the  road  are  the 
cows  at  all  inclined  to  stampede.*  Horses  too,  with 
pack  saddles,  may  be  seen  bearing  a load  of  wood, 
boards,  rice  bags,  or  even  a couple  of  long  bamboo 
poles.  The  absence  of  wagons,  carriages,  buggies,  and 
fine  horses  is  very  noticeable  in  Japan.  The  foreigner 
misses  these  sights  so  familiar  in  his  own  country.  In 
a district  back  of  the  city  of  Kobe  cattle  raising  has 
been  recently  undertaken,  and  Kobe  beef  is  becoming 
noted  in  all  the  treaty  ports.  The  Japanese  in  and 
around  these  ports  are  learning  to  eat  beef,  and  butter 
too,  which  at  the  first  has  for  them  a very  disagreeable 
smell. 

As  for  Japanese  dogs,  there  are  two  kinds:  the  little 
woolly  pet,  and  the  street  dog  with  its  foxlike  head — a 
cowardly  beast.  Cats  are  common,  some  with  tails  and 
some  contrariwise. 

As  for  rats,  there  is  no  country  that  sports  larger 
specimens.  It  is  a mistake  to  say  that  the  Japanese,  like 
the  Chinese,  eat  rats.  There  is  a white  variety  of  mice 
which  is  a great  pet  with  certain  women. 

The  most  common  wild  animals  are  the  fox,  monkey, 
wild  boar,  deer,  and  bear.  The  fox,  if  not  king  among 
beasts,  is  treated  so  by  the  people.  To  him  is  ascribed 
the  fearful  power  of  bewitching  people,  cursing  them 
with  madness,  and  causing  the  traveler  to  miss  the 
right  road  and  wander  on  to  destruction.  He  is  natu- 
rally dreaded;  and  when,  as  he  often  does,  he  prowls 


*Most  of  the  animals  in  Japan  are  at  first  a little  skittish 
of  a foreigner,  especially  the  dogs. 


THE  FAUNA. 


27 


into  the  yard  at  night,  and  sets  up  his  shrill,  unearthly 
howling,  it  makes  the  suddenly  awakened  Japanese  feel 
afraid.  From  experience  the  writer  thinks  that  under 
such  circumstances  it  is  enough  to  make  anybody’s  hair 
stand  on  end  when  thus  suddenly  aroused  in  the  dead 
hours  of  night. 

As  the  messenger  of  the  rice  god  (Inari  Sama),  the 
fox  is  elevated  to  the  rank  of  divinity.  In  many  temple 
courts  in  all  parts  of  the  country  fox  shrines  may  be 
seen  even  to-day,  in  which  are  perched  little  white  fox 
images,  objects  of  worship  by  the  ignorant.  For  this 
reason  the  Japanese  are  afraid  to  kill  the  fox. 

Monkeys  live  in  temple  forests,  as  well  as  in  the 
mountains,  and  in  some  sections  the  name  has  been 
attached  to  streams,  mountains,  and  moors — e.  g.,saru- 
ishi-Jcawa  means  “ape-stone-river.”  Monkey  meat  was 
a few  years  ago  exposed  for  sale  in  the  markets  of 
Tokyo,  but  how  it  tastes  the  writer  knows  not.  In  the 
language  of  the  country,  the  monkey’s  cunning  is  used 
to  characterize  men  who  have  certain  monkey  qualities. 

The  flesh  of  the  wild  boar  is  also  on  sale  in  many  of 
the  interior  towns.  In  the  old  feudal  times  the  Samu- 
rai with  bow  and  arrow  had  good  sport  in  hunting  him 
in  the  hills. 

Black  bears  with  a white  spot  on  the  throat  are  hunt- 
ed in  the  mountains  for  their  flesh  and  skin,  but  are  not 
numerous.  The  brown  bear  of  Yezo  Island  corresponds 
to  the  grizzly  in  North  America.  Deer  are  very  numer- 
ous, and  are  found  wild  and  in  temple  grounds.  The 
stag  is  smaller  than  the  American  stag.  Kindly  cared 
for  at  the  temples,  they  become  very  gentle  and  ap- 
proach even  a stranger  from  whose  outstretched  hand 
they  expect  something  to  eat.  In  Yezo  they  abound, 
and  it  is  said  that  in  the  year  1874-1875  thirty  thousand 


28 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


were  killed.  Venison  is  for  sale  in  some  interior  markets. 
Wolves  are  scarce,  and  the  tiger  and  wild  cat  almost  en- 
tirely unknown.  Rabbits  and  squirrels  are  still  found 
in  some  sections  in  considerable  numbers. 

Domestic  fowls  are  few,  chiefly  chickens  and  ducks, 
though  turkeys  and  pigeons  are  met  with.  Chickens 
are  raised  chiefly  for  their  eggs,  and  not  much  for  their 
meat.  They  do  eat  the  fowl,  but  are  not  very  familiar 
with  “spring  chicken.”  Indeed,  native  breeds  are 
small,  and  their  meat  is  tough.  The  fighting  cock  is  a 
small  bird  of  red  plumage,  and,  like  his  Japanese  mas- 
ter, is  a game  fighter.  The  crow,  swallow,  and  spar- 
row may  also  be  called  domestic  birds,  for  they  are 
guests  of  every  village.  The  crow  is  often  seen  perched 
upon  the  roofs  of  the  houses.  The  hawk  too  seems  to 
fly  around  with  freedom,  as  if  there  was  no  one  to  mo- 
lest or  make  him  afraid.  The  owl  is  the  night  bird. 

In  songsters  the  country  is  poor.  The  uguisu,  or 
nightingale,  is  the  one  exception.  Though  not  equal  to 
our  mocking  bird,  nor  to  the  nightingale  of  Europe, 
his  notes  are  low,  soft,  clear,  and  flutelike,  sothartwhen 
heard  as  one  is  climbing  the  paths  or  penetrating  the- 
gorges  of  the  mountains  the  effect  is  decidedly  pleasing. 

The  skylark  has  interesting  ways.  As  you  walk  the 
paths  dividing  the  cultivated  plats  or  the  road  skirting 
the  rice  fields,  you  will  probably  hear  twittering  notes 
high  overhead,  and  when  you  gaze  upward  you  observe, 
almost  out  of  sight  it  may  be,  a lark  rising  in  circles 
toward  the  clouds,  singing  as  he  rises.  In  sunshine  and 
in  rain  he  is  accustomed  to  these  circling  flights  of  song 
into  the  upper  spaces,  and  thus  teaches  us  a beautiful 
lesson. 

The  principal  waders  are  cranes,  herons,  and  storks. 
A species  of  heron  lives  in  colonies,  homing  in  the  pines 


THE  FAUNA. 


29 


and  other  trees  of  parks  and  temple  groves.  In  Tokyo 
large  flocks  were  observed  flying  in  the  evening  to  their 
roosting  place. 

The  swimmers  are  numerous  in  certain  sections,  wild 
ducks  and  geese  being  .frequently  seen  in  the  moats  and 
ponds  even  in  the  heart  of  Tokyo,  accompanied  by  a 
third,  the  cormorant.  The  cormorant,  once  used  for 
fishing  as  in  China,  is  not  much  used  for  that  purpose 
now.  Speaking  of  wild  ducks  and  geese,  Rein  says: 
“In  a pond  ten  or  twelve  miles  from  Sendai  Bay  ducks 
and  geese  were  so  numerous  that  ten  thousand  rose  at  a 
pistol  shot.  This  case,  however,  is  by  no  means  repre- 
sentative of  the  whole  country. 

The  reptiles  and  insects  call  for  a few  words.  Land 
serpents  are  common,  and,  judging  from  the  easy  way 
the  Japanese  have  of  handling  them,  they  cannot  be 
very  poisonous.  One  species  they  used  to  catch,  cook, 
and  eat,  as  a nerve  strengthener,  so  says  Rein.  In 
summer  not  unfrequently  one  finds  a snake  in  the  yard 
or  in  the  house.  At  Beppu  one  of  our  missionary  breth- 
ren had  quite  a novel  experience  one  night  with  snakes 
in  his  room  and  even  on  his  bed.  Frogs,  lizards,  and 
centipeds  are  in  abundance.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
salamander,  the  ordinary  and  the  giant  species.  The 
giant  species  of  salamander,  formerly  prized  for  the 
cure  of  diseases,  is  now  scarce,  and  will  probably  be- 
come extinct.  This  is  the  more  regrettable  because  they 
are  now  almost  extinct  in  the  world. 

The  sea  turtle  is  rare.  In  the  small  museum  of  the 
Kwansei  Gakuin,  a Methodist  mission  college  at  Kobe,  is 
a turtle  shell  two  and  a half  by  two  feet.  The  manu- 
factured tortoise  shells  of  Japan  are  all  of  imported  ma- 
terials, chiefly  from  Singapore,  more  recently  from  Lon- 
don. The  fresh-water  tortoises  are  seen  everywhere — 


30 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


in  tiny  lakes  of  yards,  in  temple  tanks,  where,  under 
the  protection  of  priests  and  pilgrims,  they  live  to  a 
great  old  age.  In  all  Buddhist  countries  the  tortoise  is 
a sacred  creature,  and  kindness  to  it  secures  merit  for 
the  soul. 

It  may. be  said  in  general  that  the  Japanese  are  on  bet- 
ter terms  with  their  domestic  creatures  than  we  Ameri- 
cans are.  For  example,  in  the  management  of  domestic 
fowls  and  of  the  cow  these  are  treated  rather  as  if  they 
were  a part  of  the  household.  As  in  Bible  times,  the 
cow  often  has  her  stall  under  the  same  roof,  at  one  end 
or  corner  of  the  dwelling.  It  may  be  we  are  moving 
away  from  the  animal  creation,  so  that  we  treat  them  as 
aliens  and  servants,  and  not  as  friends  or  companions. 
As  a matter  of  course  they  feel  this,  and  treat  us  in  the 
same  unfriendly  way.  It  is  predicted  that  the  horse 
must  soon  go  (out  of  our  cities,  at  least);  and  if  so,  we 
shall  become  still  less  familiar  with  and  friendly  to  this 
noble  animal.  It  may  be  that  with  our  advance  in  civ- 
ilization we  are  becoming  too  artificial  and  cold,  too  far 
removed  from  nature’s  teeming  life  and  beauty. 

The  paradise  for  insects  is  Central  and  Southern  Ja- 
pan. Butterflies,  moths,  beetles,  spiders,  grasshoppers, 
katydids,  crickets,  locusts,  cockroaches,  gnats,  fleas,  lice, 
and  mosquitoes  abound.  Some  of  the  butterfles  are  large 
— e.  g.,  the  broad- winged  papilio,  which  is  brilliantly 
colored.  There  is  the  mantis,  or  prophet,  a long-bod- 
ied and  long-legged  insect,  so  named  because  it  often 
takes  a position  as  if  in  prayer.  The  katydids,  grass- 
hoppers, and  cicadse  (sometimes  called  locusts)  are  very 
numerous  and  very  noisy.  Grasshoppers  in  the  day, 
katydids  at  night  and  pleasant  afternoons,  and  the  cica- 
dse  all  day,  from  the  middle  of  May  to  September,  keep 
the  neighborhood  full  of  noise.  It  is  said  that  some- 


THE  FAUNA. 


31 


times  even  the  birds  of  the  neighborhood  quit  chirping 
because  of  the  din  made  in  their  ears  by  swarms  of  lo- 
custs. In  summer  innumerable  multitudes  of  gnats  or 
fleas  sometimes  fill  the  air,  reminding  one  of  the  plague  of 
gnats  in  Egypt.  One  kind,  the  butta,  is  really  poisonous. 
But  the  mosquitoes  are  the  worst  pest.  Smaller  than 
our  Southern  mosquito,  they  more  than  make  up  for  lack 
of  size  by  energy  and  persistence.  Not  content  with 
singing  and  stinging  by  night,  they  attack  their  victims 
by  day  as  well,  so  that  low-quartered  shoes  and  thin 
stockings,  or  none  at  all,  as  is  the  case  with  most  Jap- 
anese in  summer,  call  for  the  constant  use  of  the  fan  in 
self-defense.  On  the  other  hand,  Japanese  dwellings 
are  singularly  free  from  our  universal  pest,  the  house 
fly — a result  due,  probably,  to  the  absence  of  horse  sta- 
bles, and  that  there  are  so  few  cows. 

The  silkworm  and  its  spinning  call  for  a few  obser- 
vations. The  silkworm  is  preeminent  among  all  worms 
for  its  silk- producing  power.  Like  all  plants  or  ani- 
mals subject  to  centuries  of  culture,  many  new  species, 
each  with  its  own  marks  of  difference,  have  been  devel- 
oped. In  Japan  there  are  two  species,  named  according 
to  the  season:  first,  the  spring  spinners,  which,  as  a 
Japanese  friend  informs  me,  are  born  in  spring  and  ear- 
ly summer,  and  produce  the  best  silk;  and,  second,  the 
summer  spinners,  that  are  not  much  prized.  One  au- 
thority says  there  is  considerable  difference,  not  only 
in  the  life  and  size  of  the  silk-producing  caterpillar, 
but  also  in  the  form,  the  size,  and  the  color  of  the  co- 
coons. The  Japanese  prefer  the  white-and-green  spin- 
ners. 

There  are  several  distinct  life  or  transformation  stages 
of  the  silkworm.  There  is  the  butterfly,  or  moth,  the 
first  stage;  this  lays  the  egg,  the  second  stage;  the  egg 


32 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


hatches  out  into  the  caterpillar,  third  stage;  and  this, 
spinning  from  the  salivary  glands  inside  its  body  the 
finest  thread,  weaves  around  itself  a thin  case  or  hol- 
low ball  or  cocoon,  which  is  the  fourth  stage;  then  be- 
coming a torpid,  half- dead  chrysalis  in  this  inclosed 
ball,  it  is  in  the  fifth  stage.  It  is  this  fifth  or  chrysalis 
stage  that  becomes  the  first,  when  it  comes  forth  the 
following  spring  a beautiful  butterfly,  and  thus  com- 
pletes the  circle  of  changes.  A very  interesting  fact 
about  the  young  hatched- out  grubs  is  that  they  cast 
their  skins  four  times.  When  young — that  is,  to  the 
third  casting — they  must  be  fed  three  or  four  times  a day. 
Their  food,  as  every  one  knows,  is  mulberry  leaves, 
which  must  be  chopped  up  fine  and  given  clean  and  dry. 
To  have  healthy  silkworms  there  must  be  a clean,  dry 
room,  free  from  draft,  with  fresh  air,  no  odors,  and  no 
direct  sunshine.  Even  the  cleanliness  of  the  keeper  is 
important.  The  keepers  are  generally  women.  If  from 
the  neglect  or  poverty  of  their  keepers  the  worms  do  not 
get  proper  care,  they  become  sickly  and  die  by  the  hun- 
dred. Just  before  the  spinning  time  they  lose  their  ap- 
petite and  become  restless,  often  raising  their  body,  and 
are  almost  transparent.  Inside,  two  spinning  tubes, 
running  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  body,  are  now 
filled  with  a transparent,  thick  fluid  (silk  stuff),  which 
conies  out  through  two  small  holes  in  the  worm’s  head 
as  silk  threads.  But  instantly  the  two  fine  threads  are 
glued  into  one  as  they  are  spun  out.  Spinning  away,  it 
soon  weaves  around  itself  a network  of  silk  threads. 
In  about  six  days  the  cocoon  is  completed,  and  the  worm 
is  inside.  And  be  it  remembered,  that  cocoon  is  made 
of  one  continuous  silk  thread,  varying  in  length  from 
1,300  to  1,560  feet.  The  life  of  the  silkworm  is  a pe- 
riod of  about  thirty-five  days. 


FISH  IN  JAPANESE  WATERS. 


33 


V.  Fish  in  Japanese  Waters. 

Many  writers  have  justly  referred  to  the  importance 
of  fish  as  a daily  food  of  the  Japanese,  and  to  the  re- 
markable variety  and  abundance  of  fishes  found  in  the 
markets  of  that  country.  Japanese  and  Chinese  waters 
apjjear  to  be  richer  in  fish  than  any  part  of  the  ocean;  in- 
deed, inexhaustible,  for  hundreds  and  thousands  of  per- 
sons have  for  generations  been  engaged  in  fishing  with- 
. out  any  apparent  decrease  in  the  supply.  Six  hundred 
species  have  already  been  distinguished  and  described. 
The  staff  of  scientific  gentlemen  sent  out  with  Commo- 
dore Perry’s  expedition  in  1854  were  impressed  with 
the  wealth  of  the  products  of  Japanese  waters,  and 
have  given  us  some  descriptions  and  beautifully  col- 
ored drawings  of  several  varieties.  The  remarkable 
fertility  of  those  waters  has  been  explained  by  two  or 
three  facts:  (1)  The  summer  monsoons  from  the  In- 
dian Ocean  bring  shoals  of  southern  varieties;  (2)  the 
winter  monsoons  from  the  Okhotsk  Sea  bring  many 
northern  species;  and  (3)  as  vet  Japanese  waters  are  not 
much  infested  by  pirate  fish.  Some  one  has  said  that 
it  is  likely  that  in  every  region  affected  by  endemic  ail- 
ment, as  yellow  fever,  malaria,  etc. , there  is  in  that  re- 
gion some  herb,  some  natural  antidote  for  it,  if  man 
will  only  find  it;  and  so  by  God’s  good  providence, 
where  fishes  are  most  needed  for  daily  food,  the  wa- 
ters are  richest  in  producing  them.  The  mackerel,  sal- 
mon, and  herring  family  are  the  most  important.  The 
Japan  Sea  has  been  called  the  kingdom  of  the  mackerel. 
Salmon  are  in  great  quantities  around  the  island  of 
Yezo,  and  the  canning  business  has  been  started.  Sar- 
dines, too,  a species  of  herring,  are  valuable  for  the 
fish  oil,  and  also  for  the  fish  guano  used  by  gardeners 
3 


34 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


and  farmers.  The  one  fish  preferred  above  all  others 
is  the  tai,  the  aristocratic  fish.  Another  fish,  the  koi, 
is  noted  for  its  strength  and  endurance,  and,  as  we  shall 
see  later,  plays  an  important  part  in  a festival  for  boys. 
Goldfishes  abound.  Eels  and  devilfish  are  frequently 
seen  in  their  markets.  There  are  crabs,  shrimps,  and 
oysters.  The  oysters  are  small,  hardly  worthy  of  men- 
tion with  our  Baltimore  and  Chesapeake  oysters. 
Though  whales  are  so  near,  the  Japanese  have  never 
done  much  in  the  way  of  whale  fishing.  Seaweed  and 
cuttlefish  are  gathered  in  great  quantities  and  sent  to 
China  and  other  countries.  In  1891  the  total  export  of 
cuttlefish  was  worth  more  than  seven  and  a half  mil- 
lions yen  (the  yen  is  equal  to  fifty  cents). 

YI.  The  Minerals. 

For  many  centuries  the  Japanese  were  acquainted  with 
ores,  clays,  rocks,  lime,  precious  stone,  and  in  a limit- 
ed way  used  them;  but  for  their  light  wooden  build- 
ings little  stone  was  required.  For  walls  around  their 
castle  heights,  for  bridges  over  ditches,  and  for  the  many 
long  stairs  leading  to  temples  and  shrines  on  the  top  of 
the  hill,  and  for  tombstones  and  monuments  heavy  blocks 
or  slabs  were  used,  chiefly  of  granite.  There  was  no 
systematic  or  scientific  knowledge  of  geology  or  miner- 
als. Minerals  were  generally  named  from  the  place 
where  first  discovered  or  worked.  For  example,  gran- 
ite is  everywhere  called  Mikage  stone,  from  the  village 
Mikage,  near  Kobe. 

Concerning  the  gold  in  Japan,  Marco  Polo,  who  was 
in  China  for  seventeen  years  (1275-1292  A.D.)  carried 
back  to  Europe  the  most  wonderful  stories  of  its  abun- 
dance. “The  lord  of  Japan,”  wrote  he,  “has  a great 
palace  entirely  roofed  [ceiled]  with  fine  gold. 


THE  MINERALS. 


35 


Moreover,  all  the  pavements  of  the  palace  and  the 
floors  are  entirely  of  gold  in  plates,  like  plates  of 
stone,  a good  two  fingers  thick.”  And  it  is  now 
known  that  Columbus,  who  had  read  Marco  Polo  and 
studied  his  maps,  in  seeking  a route  across  the  Atlan- 
tic to  the  far  East,  had  hopes  of  these  abundant  treas- 
ures in  Zipangu  (Japan).  In  ancient  times  there  were 
no  doubt  rich  gold  mines,  but  never  enough  for  laying 
gold  pavements  a good  two  fingers  thick  in  palace 
halls.  The  export  of  silver  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties for  so  long  a time,  first  by  the  Portuguese  and 
Spaniards,  then  the  Dutch,  confirm  the  belief  of  Euro- 
peans that  the  silver  mines  at  least  were  very  rich. 

In  copper,  iron,  coal,  and  antimony  Japan  is  rich. 
The  iron  ores  are  not  the  best;  but  copper  is  widely 
distributed,  is  of  fine  quality,  and  was  largely  exported 
by  the  Dutch.  Antimony  is  also  sent  to  foreign  coun- 
tries. Coal  appears  in  many  sections  from  the  north- 
ern island  of  Yezo  to  Kiushiu  and  the  Riukius.  In 
Yezo  the  quantity  is  sufficient,  it  is  said,  for  a yearly 
output  equal  to  England’s  for  a hundred  years.  The 
Kiushiu  coal  mines  are  the  most  noted.  One  of  these 
mines  is  almost  under  the  harbor  of  Nagasaki,  and  sup- 
plies foreign  ships  calling  there  from  America  and 
China.  Japan  coals  are  soft,  bituminous,  and  give  off 
much  soot  and  smoke,  and  geologically  are  of  a late 
formation  (Tertiary),  and  are  by  no  means  equal  to 
American  or  English  coals.  Coal  oil  wells  have  been 
worked  in  profitable  quantities,  but  are  not  equal  to 
the  demand.  American  cases,  five  gallons  each,  and 
marked  “Philadelphia,”  may  be  seen  in  the  remotest 
corners  of  the  empire.  Recently,  however,  Russian 
oil  is  competing  with  the  American  product.  In  a land 
of  volcanoes  one  would  naturally  expect  plenty  of  sul- 


36 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


phur,  and  there  is.  The  prevailing  rock  formations  are 
granite  and  schist;  next  limestones  and  sandstones,  hut 
they  are  not  abundant.  Marble  and  slate  are  found  in 
some  sections.  Porcelain  stone  (kaolin  clay)  is  plentiful, 
from  which  are  made  the  beautiful  and  famous  porce- 
lain wares.  By  examining  the  soil  with  a microscope 
and  by  chemical  analysis,  scientific  geologists  can 
prove  that  the  land  is  largely  volcanic.  Several  pre- 
cious stones  are  found,  rock  crystals  perfectly  color- 
less, the  amethyst,  topaz,  agate,  coral,  chalcedony, 
carnelian,  green  jasper,  and  a stone  from  which  seals 
are  made. 


PART  II. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  MYTHICAL  AND  PREHISTORIC  PERIOD— FROM 
AN  UNKNOWN  BEGINNING  TO  JfiO  A.D. 

I.  Origin  of  the  World,  Gods,  and  Men. 

Like  the  Greeks  and  our  own  Anglo-Saxon  forefathers, 
the  Japanese  had  nothing  better  than  traditions  and 
myths  to  depend  upon  for  their  knowledge  and  beliefs 
concerning  the  cause  of  the  world  and  of  men.  Those 
myths  are  stories  more  or  less  imaginary  or  allegorical, 
telling  how  gods  and  other  superhuman  beings  came  to 
be,  how  they  started  the  world  and  the  human  race;  also 
of  certain  marvelous  exploits  of  ancestors  and  heroes. 
In  such  a mass  of  myths  and  traditions  in  every  pagan 
nation  we  must  admit  that  there  are  elements  of  truth 
and  religious  instruction,  but  it  is  like  a little  wheat  in 
a hillock  of  chaff.  Japanese  mythologies,  like  those  of 
other  nations,  are  for  the  most  part  confused,  unreason- 
able, and  in  many  cases  ridiculous  or  repulsive.  And 
yet  these  myths  have  been  the  beliefs  of  this  nation  for 
more  than  two  thousand  years,  and  hence  must  call  for 
some  consideration.  A nation’s  beliefs,  however  false, 
are  serious  things. 

The  sources  of  our  knowledge  of  the  early  beliefs  and 
traditions  among  the  Japanese  are  two  books;  the  oldest 
in  the  language,  the  Ko-ji-ki  (Records  of  Ancient 
Things),  written  712  A.D.,  and  the  Nihongi  (Chroni- 
cles), written  720  A.D.  From  these  books,  especially 

(37) 


38 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


the  first,  we  learn  what  the  beliefs  of  the  people  were 
concerning  the  beginning  of  all  things,  including  their 
gods,  what  their  beliefs  and  ceremonies  are  based  upon. 
As  Prof.  Chamberlain,  translator  of  the  book,  has  said, 
the  Ko-ji-ki  has  preserved  for  us  the  mythology,  man- 
ners, language,  and  traditional  history  of  the  Japanese 
more  than  any  other  book  has  done.  According  to  this 
book  the  origin  of  things  is  briefly  this:  There  was 
originally  a confused  mass,  land,  sea,  and  air  being 
mixed  together,  just  as  chaos  was  described  by  a poet 
of  Rome  long  afterwards: 

N o sun  yet  beamed  from  yon  cerulean  height, 

No  orbing  moon  repaired  her  horns  of  light, 

No  earth,  self-poised,  on  liquid  ether  hung, 

No  sea  its  world-inclasping  waters  flung; 

Dark  was  the  void  of  air,  no  form  was  traced. — Ovid. 

In  some  unexplained  way  the  foamy,  formless  nebula 
began  to  move,  to  condense,  and  heaven  and  earth  were 
separated,  remaining,  however,  much  closer  to  each 
other  than  now,  and  the  earth  was  softer  and  warmer 
than  now.  It  was  not  spirit  first  and  then  matter,  but 
matter  existed  before  mind,  and  the  gods  were  born  or 
evolved,  some  from  the  heaven  and  some  from  the  earth. 
In  the  plain  of  heaven  were  born  three  gods  ( Kami ) who 
afterwards  died;  and  out  of  the  warm,  soft  earth  slime, 
floating  about  like  vast  masses  of  hair,  a germ  sprouted 
as  of  a reed  sprout,  and  from  this  were  born  or  grew 
two  more  gods  (Kami),  who  also  died. 

After  these  seven  divine  beings  came  forth  in  pairs, 
the  last  being  Izanagi  and  Izanami.  Now  by  the  will 
of  the  heavenly  gods,  Izanagi  and  Izanami  were  directed 
to  consolidate  the  drifting  earth  slime  into  land.  Ac- 
cordingly, having  received  a jeweled  spear,  they  stood 
on  heaven’s  bridge,  floating  just  above  the  foaming 


IZANAGI  AND  IZANAML 


39 


abyss,  and,  reaching  down,  Izanagi  stirred  it  till  it  gur- 
gled and  thickened  a little,  then  as  he  drew  up  his  spear 
the  dripping  particles  piled  up  and  thickened,  forming 
an  island.  This  island,  afterwards  named  Awaji,  in 
the  Inland  Sea,  was  the  beginning  of  Japan.  Descend- 
ing to  this  island,  the  divine  pair  produced  seven  other 
islands,  thus  constituting  the  Grand  Land  of  the  Eight 
Islands.  This  became  to  the  Japanese  their  world  and 
heaven  too,  including  gods  and  men  in  one  divine  coun- 
try. Like  the  Greeks,  who  believed  their  land  of  Mount 
Olympus  to  be  the  top  and  center  of  all  countries,  so 
the  Japanese  believed  that  their  country  was  the  heav- 
enly one,  and  therefore  superior  to  all  others.  One  of 
their  early  writers  says: 

Japan  is  not  a land  where  men  need  to  pray, 

For  it  is  itself  divine; 

Yet  do  I lift  up  my  voice  in  prayer. 

Reminding  us  of  a Greek  myth,  there  is  in  the  Ko-ji- 
ki  a story  of  the  goddess  Izanami’s  departure  to  the  bot- 
tom country.  Izanagi  went  down  after  her,  but,  wait- 
ing long  at  the  gates  while  she  consulted  the  gods,  he  be- 
came impatient  and  rushed  in,  but  was  horrified  at  seeing 
her  putrefying  body,  the  foulness  of  the  place,  and  the 
eight  gods  of  thunder  seated  in  the  midst.  Though  the 
ugly  female  deity  of  Hades  would  seize  him,  and  armies 
of  demons  pursued  him,  he  escaped  and  blocked  up  the 
Pass  of  Hades  with  a rock  that  a thousand  men  could 
not  lift.  After  this  marvelous  escape  from  Hades,  Iza- 
nagi purified  himself  by  bathing  in  a stream,  and  from 
his  armor  and  garments  gods  were  produced,  and  from 
the  rinsings  of  his  body  two  evil  gods  came  forth.  From 
his  left  eye  Amaterasu,  the  sun  goddess,  was  produced, 
from  his  right  eye  the  moon  god,  and  from  his  nose 
Susanowo,  the  voluptuous  male  deity. 


40 


japan:  country,  court,  people!. 


Of  all  the  Kami  (gods)  thus  produced,  the  one  es- 
pecially to  be  noted  is  this  sun  goddess  Amaterasu,  be- 
cause she  is  the  center  of  their  native  Shinto  religion, 
if  we  may  call  it  religion.  This  sun  goddess,  seeing 
that  the  disorders  had  been  settled  in  the  “Central 
Land  of  the  Reed  Plains” — i.  e.,  Japan — sent  down  her 
grandson,  Ninigi,  to  dwell  in  and  rule  over  the  country; 
and  he  is  the  great  grandfather  of  Jimmu  Tenno,  the 
first  Emperor  of  the  Japanese.  So  then  the  Japanese 
trace  their  ancestry  through  the  line  of  their  rulers  di- 
rectly back  to  the  sun  goddess  in  heaven.  Before  Ni- 
nigi descended  to  a certain  mountain  on  one  of  the 
great  islands,  he  received  from  the  sun  goddess  certain 
treasures,  as  the  mirror,  the  emblem  of  her  spirit,  the 
cloud-clustered  sword,  taken  from  the  eight-headed 
dragon’s  tail,  and  a precious  round  stone.  The  mir- 
ror, sword,  and  stone  are  the  insignia  of  imperial 
sovereignty.  The  mirror  is  worshiped  at  the  national 
shrine  of  the  sun  goddess  at  Ise.  No  doubt  many  Shin- 
toists  believe  to  this  day  that  these  three  things  actually 
came  down  from  heaven. 

Tli is  same  sun  goddess  (Amaterasu)  ordained  food  for 
mankind,  rice  to  grow  in  watery  fields  and  other  grains 
on  the  dry  uplands.  She  planted  the  mulberry  upon 
the  hills  of  heaven,  raised  silkworms  and  wove  silk,  is 
the  author  of  agriculture,  silkworm  raising,  and  weav- 
ing among  men. 

Out  of  the  jumbled  mass  of  myths  and  traditions  as 
contained  in  the  ancient  Ko-ji-ki  mentioned  above,  we 
have  in  this  brief  way  set  forth  only  what  relates  to  the 
Shinto  beliefs  concerning  the  beginning  of  the  Japanese 
world,  their  Kami  (gods),  and  the  descent  of-  their  rulers 
from  Amaterasu,  the  son  goddess.  It  is  only  by  seeking 
some  knowledge  of  these  traditions  that  we  can  get  an 


RACIAL  ORIGINS. 


41 


understanding  of  the  Shinto  religion  of  the  Japanese. 
As  among  all  pagan  people,  these  myths  and  traditions 
of  the  gods  and  their  divinely  begotten  ancestors  have 
been  impressed  upon  their  many  peculiar  customs,  and 
furnished  abundant  material  for  treatment  in  their  lit- 
erature and  arts. 

II.  Racial  Origins  of  the  Japanese. 

In  the  Saxon  chronicles  Cerdic,  early  Saxon  king,  traces 
his  descent  back  through  Baldaeg  to  the  god  Woden. 
In  Homer  the  great  warrior  kings  of  the  Greeks  are 
spoken  of  as  descended  from  gods  or  goddesses.  So  we 
need  not  be  surprised  that  in  the  Ko-ji-ki,  Jimmu- 
Tenno,  the  first  Emperor  of  the  Japanese,  is  said  to  be 
descended  from  the  Heaven  Shining  Deity  (Amaterasu), 
but  unfortunately  there  are  so  many  tribes  mixed  to- 
gether in  the  earlier  chapters  of  that  book  and  so  many 
absurd  and  even  immoral  deeds  attributed  to  them,  that 
it  is  hard  to  separate  the  truth  from  what  is  false  in  re- 
gard to  the  Japanese  race  and  the  day  of  their  coming 
into  Japan. 

It  is  probable  that  “the  savage  deities,”  “very  tu- 
multuous,” mentioned  in  the  early  part  of  the  book, 
means  no  more  than  that  other  chiefs  and  tribes  were 
already  in  the  country;  at  any  rate,  when  the  chief  and 
the  tribe  who  afterwards  became  the  ruling  Japanese 
first  came  into  the  country  there  were  people  already 
in  the  South,  Northwest,  and  other  quarters.  Those  in 
the  South  (island  of  Kiushiu)  were  probably  from 
Korea  and  Malay  India;  those  in  the  Northwest  were 
probably  of  Korean  descent;  those  in  the  East  were  the 
Emishi  (Ainus),  dwelling  from  earliest  times  in  the 
greater  part  of  the  main  island.  These  Ainus  probably 
came  down  from  Eastern  Siberia.  From  the  Ko-ji-ki 


42 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


we  learn  that  all  these  earlier  tribes  were  savages  of  a 
low  order  and  that  they  were  finally  conquered  by  the 
Yamato- Japanese  under  their  first  king,  Jiinmu,  and  his 
successors.  The  Ainus,  particularly,  were  driven  north- 
ward out  of  the  country — a la  Americans  and  the  Red 
Indians.  Racially  the  Japanese  are  a mixture  com- 
posed of  a small  Malay  element  in  the  South,  a small 
Siberian  trace  in  the  East  and  North,  while  in  the  cen- 
ter was  the  chief  stock  that  emigrated  from  the  Asiatic 
Continent  through  Korea  into  Japan.  This  chief  stock, 
named  Yamato- Japanese,  probably  started  originally 
from  Central  Asia,  and  are  kindred  to  the  Scythians  of 
Herodotus,  the  Tartary  Huns  who  in  ancient  times 
swept  westward  toward  Europe  and  eastward  into  East- 
ern Asia.  The  faces  one  meets  with  in  Japan  show 
unmistakably  a mixed  race,  some  being  broad-faced 
with  low  nose,  others  long-faced  with  sharp  nose. 
That  the  Yamatos  came  immediately  from  Korea  ad- 
mits of  no  reasonable  doubt. 

This  conclusion,  however,  is  due  to  the  investiga- 
tions of  foreign  scholars;  as  for  the  Jajianese.  them- 
selves, though  proudly  claiming  to  be  an  old  nation,  yet 
when  asked  where  they  came  from  and  when  their  fore- 
fathers came  into  Japan,  they  are  utterly  unable  to  tell. 
This  lack  of  information  as  to  the  times  and  where- 
abouts of  their  forefathers  justly  casts  suspicion  upon 
their  proud  antiquity. 

III.  Primitive  Life  of  the  People. 

The  primitive  Japanese  were  barbarians  probably 
upon  the  same  level  as  our  Anglo-Saxon  forefathers, 
with  rude  wavs  of  farming  and  some  knowledge  of  the 
useful  arts.  They  knew  how  to  make  weapons  and 
tools  of  iron,  the  ax  and  the  bow  and  arrow  being  men- 


PRIMITIVE  LIFE  OF  THE  PEOPLE. 


43 


tioned  very  early.  From  early  times  the  men  lived  by 
hunting  and  fishing.  With  bow  and  arrow  and  traps, 
wild  animals  were  taken;  with  hooks,  cormorants,  and 
bamboo  snares,  fish  were  caught.  Of  course  the  women 
aided  in  tilling  the  patches,  dressing  the  game,  and  did 
the  weaving.  In  earliest  times  the  taxes  required  were: 
of  the  men,  the  products  of  the  chase,  wild  flesh  and 
skins;  of  the  women,  the  product  of  the  loom,  white 
cloth  made  from  the  paper  mulberry  tree,  and  blue 
hempen  cloth.  One  thousand  years  after  the  tradi- 
tional reign  of  their  first  king,  Jimmu,  there  was  little 
writing,  and  as  little  commerce  except  by  bartering. 
In  the  earlier  half  of  the  Ko-ji-ki  there  is  no  mention 
of  books  or  money.  Travel  was  chiefly  on  foot  or  boat 
with  oars  without  sails.  Even  Jimmu  went  on  foot  in 
the  campaign  from  Iviushiu  into  Yamato.  For  dwell- 
ings they  had  rude  houses  and  pits.  The  inferior  sub- 
ject tribes  are  spoken  of  as  “earth  spiders,”  referring 
to  their  dug-out  caves.  The  Hon.  Ernest  Satow,  Brit- 
ish Minister  to  Japan,  having  a thorough  knowledge  of 
the  Japanese  language,  and  being  an  authority  upon  its 
old  forms,  and  translator  of  the  ancient  rituals,  says: 
“From  the  language  of  these  prayers  (dedication)  we 
learn  that  in  the  ancient  times  the  palace  of  the  sover- 
eign was  a wooden  hut  with  its  pillars  planted  in  the 
ground.”  (See  p.  191,  Yol.  IX..,  Trans.  Asiatic  Society.) 

Besides  iron  and  copper,  mention  is  made  of  the 
carved  jewels,  mirror,  and  sword.  In  the  use  of 
clothing  and  the  specialization  of  garments  the  early 
Japanese,  says  Prof.  Chamberlain,  had  reached  a high 
level;  “bright  cloth,  soft  cloth,  and  coarse  cloth” 
are  mentioned.  Besides  various  garments  for  both 
sexes,  neck  and  arm  bracelets,  earrings  but  not  finger 
rings,  mirrors,  combs  and  dressing  of  the  hair,  and  a 


44 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


few  precious  stones  are  spoken  of.  The  liair  was  worn 
in  two  knots,  one  on  each  side  of  the  head,  but  without 
decoration  of  jewelry.  Skins  were  also  used  for  cloth- 
ing, and  the  art  of  dyeing  was  to  some  extent  practiced. 

The  food  consisted  of  fish,  wild  flesh,  rice,  and  a few 
simple  vegetables.  Rice  was  probably  used  from  the 
earliest  times;  there  was  no  milk  nor  cheese,  but  an  in- 
toxicating liquor  is  mentioned  even  in  the  mythical  age, 
and  so  are  chopsticks.  The  method  of  preparing  food 
was  simple,  cooking  pots,  cups,  and  dishes  being  men- 
tioned, the  last  two  of  earthenware  and  leaves  of  trees. 
Tables  are  not  mentioned  in  connection  with  food,  but 
only  in  connection  with  offerings  to  the  gods.  The  use 
of  fire  for  warming  purposes  is  never  mentioned.  Do- 
mestic animals  in  the  prehistoric  period  were  very  few, 
the  horse  for  riding,  never  for  drawing  vehicles,  the 
barn  door  cock,  and  the  cormorant  for  fishing.  In  the 
later  traditions  dogs  and  cattle  are  also  mentioned,  but 
sheep,  swine,  and  cats  are  not  yet  introduced. 

The  family  life  of  this  period  was  of  a low  order. 
Family  names  were  unknown.  The  marriage  rela- 
tion was  loose,  a plurality  of  wives  being  not  un- 
common. Many  things  in  the  Ko-ji-ki  are  too  im- 
pure to  be  printed  in  English.  There  was  much  cruel- 
ty also,  as  shown  in  the  treatment  of  enemies  and  in  the 
severest  punishment  for  trivial  crimes.  Junshi  was  for 
many  centuries  practiced.  When  a ruler  died  some 
of  his  retainers  had  to  be  buried  alive  up  to  their, 
necks.  Standing  planted  in  the  earth,  in  a circle 
around  the  grave  of  their  chief,  they  were  left  to 
starve,  their  eyes  to  be  plucked  out  by  crows,  and 
heads  torn  to  pieces  by  dogs.  This  horrible  cruelty 
was  abolished  by  the  Emperor  Suinin,  29  B.C. 

Again,  though  they  used  the  handbreadth  for  measure- 


PRIMITIVE  LIFE  OF  THE  PEOPLE. 


45 


nients,  and  though  the  sun  by  day  and  the  crowing  of 
cocks  by  night  were  the  only  means  for  measuring  the 
hours,  and  though  there  are  no  pure  Japanese  words 
for  counting  above  ten,  we  cannot  think  with  Griffis 
that  they  could  not  count  above  ten.  Although  there 
was  little  knowledge  of  the  arts  and  no  writing  in  the 
earliest  times,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  even  the  primitive 
Japanese  had  an  aesthetic  sense,  and  an  appreciation 
for  nature  that  has  since  marked  their  descendants. 
They  were  close  observers  of  the  world  around  them. 
Their  hearts  responded  nearly  two  thousand  years  ago 
as  they  do  to-day  to  the  picturesque  scenery  of  moun- 
tains and  seas;  and  the  mighty  upheavals  of  volcanoes 
and  earthquakes,  and  the  sweeping  typhoons,  awakened 
in  their  breasts  strange  feelings  and  a lively  imagination. 
The  names  of  Japan  in  poetry  and  romance  are  almost 
legion,  and  indicate  a lively  sense  of  their  country’s 
natural  aspects  as  Avell  as  its  imagined  nearness  to 
heaven.  As  a few  examples,  take  the  following:  “The 
Region  between  Heaven  and  Earth,”  “Island  of  the 
Congealed  Drop,”  “The  Sun’s  Nest,”  “The  Princess 
Country”  (princess  refers  to  sun  goddess),  “The  Grand 
Land  of  Eight  Islands,”  “Land  of  Thousand  Au- 
tumns,” “Land  of  Fresh  Rice  Ears,”  “Central  Land  of 
Reed  Palms.”  Each  of  these  islands  has  an  alternative 
name  that  sounds  strange  to  modern  ears — e.  g .,  one  is, 
“Rice-Ear  True  Youth;”  another  is  poetically,  “Prin- 
cess of  Great  Food;”  another,  “ Sun-Fronting-Luxu- 
riant-Won  drous-Lord- Youth ; ” etc.  The  names  of  gods 
and  goddesses  also  refer  continually  to  the  various 
parts  and  phenomena  of  the  natural  world. 

Prof.  Chamberlain,  of  the  Imperial  University  of 
Japan,  says  that  “all  prior  to  400  A.D.  is  not  reliable 
history.”  Still  we  can  roughly  estimate  certain  im- 


46 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


provements  in  the  rude  civilization  in  those  prehistoric 
times,  such  as:  that  ponds  and  canals  were  dug — irriga- 
tion ponds  for  rice  growing — about  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  era;  that  a smith,  a pair  of  horses,  and 
a man  knowing  the  art  of  brewing  were  sent  over 
as  tribute  from  Korea;  that  the  empress  reigning  in 
the  year  200  A.D.  brought  sons  of  Korean  rulers 
over  as  hostages,  exacting  also  a tribute  of  gold  and 
silver;  that  a weaver  from  China  came  over,  and  a tribe 
of  clay  workers  came  and  settled  in  Idzumo,  on  the 
west  coast;  and  that  a wise  man  was  asked  for  and  was 
sent,  his  name  being  Wani-Kishi.  This  wise  man  from 
Korea  became  the  instructor  of  the  crown  prince,  after- 
wards Emperor  Nintoku,  about  300  A.D.  We  are  also 
informed  that  people  coming  over  from  Korea  were  put 
to  work  on  the  pools  and  embankments,  which  probably 
shows  that  Korea  had  been  brought  under  Japan.  Ac- 
cording to  the  “ History  of  the  Empire  of  Japan,”  writ- 
ten by  Japanese  and  published  by  the  Educational  De- 
partment, the  compilation  of  national  annals  began  in 
the  reign  of  Suiko,  620  A.D.,  and  the  use  of  letters 
for  recording  events  and  dates,  from  about  400  A.D. 

Japanese  scholars  have  been  so  patriotic  that  in  many 
cases  it  leads  to  narrow-mindedness,  and  hence  in  their 
histories  they  have  not  been  inclined  to  frankly  ac- 
knowledge what  has  been  borrowed  from  foreign  coun- 
tries; and- now  that  Korea  is  so  weak,  small,  and  back- 
ward, they  are  probably  less  inclined  than  ever  to  ac- 
knowledge their  debts  to  her.  But  just  as  Ireland  was 
once  far  in  advance  of  England  and  sent  light  and  let- 
ters over  to  her,  so  in  ancient  times  Korea  was  in  ad- 
vance of  Japan.  It  is  certain  that  Korea  was  inhabited 
in  the  twelfth  century  B.C.,  and  had  then  the  elements 
of  Chinese  civilization. 


THE  PRIMITIVE  RELIGION. 


47 


IV.  The  Primitive  Religion. 

People  are  naturally  religious  all  over  the  world,  and 
in  all  ages  of  human  history,  ancient  and  modern.  The 
Japanese  were  religious  long  before  they  had  books. 
Books  cannot  make  religion,  but  religion  in  the  heart 
causes  the  writing  of  religious  books.  The  ancient  Jap- 
anese had  some  kind  of  religion  before  coming  into 
Japan.  As  we  shall  see  later,  they  were  afterwards 
blessed  (or  cursed)  with  two  or  three  different  religions, 
but  at  first  they  had  but  one,  called  Shinto,  which 
means  the  “Way  of  the  Gods.”  Out  of  the  tangled 
mass  of  strange  and  incredible  legends  and  miraculous 
stories  of  gods,  men,  and  animals  contained  in  the  two 
oldest  books  already  mentioned,  and  in  certain  Shinto 
rituals  almost  as  old,  it  is  impossible  to  weave  a con- 
sistent web  of  truth.  In  the  first  place,  the  earliest 
Japanese  were  very  childlike  in  their  ideas,  their  hearts 
exceedingly  credulous.  The  Japanese  word  Kami , 
translated  “gods,”  has  perplexed  foreign  scholars  not  a 
little,  for  our  word  “god,”  or  “deity,”  means  too  much 
for  the  word  Kami , which  is  by  no  means  equal  in  the 
minds  of  the  Japanese  to  our  high  and  holy  God.  In  the 
Japanese  translation  of  our  Old  and  New  Testament, 
the  word  Kami  had  to  be  used  for  want  of  a better  one. 
But  by  the  Japanese  it  was  applied  to  anything  power- 
ful, wonderful,  or  superior  to  the  ordinary.  It  may  be 
a heavenly  being,  a man,  animal,  or  a thing  without 
life.  For  instance,  in  the  first  part  of  the  Ko-ji-ki  a 
peach  is  addressed  as  a Kami , or  god,  a certain  sword 
is  considered  to  be  a god,  a toad  gives  advice  to  the 
gods;  a pheasant  deity  is  mentioned,  and  the  colossal 
crow  guides  Jimmu  in  his  eastward  march. 

There  are  gods  for  every  imaginable  thing,  and  of 
every  conceivable  name,  from  a peach,  a white  boar,  or 


48 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


white  hare,  up  to  the  Heaven- Shining  Great  August  Dei- 
ty. There  are  gods  of  wind,  thunder,  trees,  mountains, 
valleys,  moors,  seas,  boundaries,  roads,  fire,  passes,  the 
kitchen,  and  so  on  indefinitely.  Some  of  the  names  are  cu- 
rious, such  as  Great  Food  Deity,  Brave  Snapping  Deity, 
Rock  Splitter,  Tree  F ork  Deity,  W ater  Sprinkler.  The 
mere  names  of  gods  in  the  Ivo-ji-ki  would  fill  several 
pages.  Some  of  the  names  are  long — for  example,  His- 
Swift-  Impetuous  - Mate  - Deity;  and,  His  - Augustness- 
Truly-Conqueror-I-Conquer-Conquering-Swift- Heaven- 
ly-Great-Great-Ears, which  is  equal  to  some  of  the  long, 
high-sounding  titles  of  a broken-down  Spanish  noble. 
In  one  place  a rock  was  turned  into  a god.  (See  Ko-ji- 
ki,  pp.  37,  38,  69,  Chamberlain’s  translation.) 

The  gods  of  the  ancient  Japanese  came  by  gradual 
growth  or  were  born,  and  some  of  them  are  said  to  have 
“hid  themselves” — that  is,  died.  Speaking  roughly, 
they  seem  to  be  divided  into  heavenly  and  earthly, 
those  of  the  Yamato  conquerors  being  the  heavenly, 
while  the  earthly  ones  belong  to  the  “savage  tribes.” 
And  yet  things  are  sometimes  sadly  mixed  up  among 
the  gods.  For  example,  the  god  Susan  owo  is  for  a 
while  on  the  earth,  then  in  heaven,  and  again  in  the 
under  world;  sometimes  he  is  ruling  in  power,  some- 
times suffering  punishment  or  driven  into  exile.  Not 
only  so,  in  the  genealogies  the  evil  and  violent  gods  are 
badly  mixed  with  good  ones.  Heaven  is  only  a coun- 
terpart of  the  earth  and  not  far  above  it,  being  origi- 
nally connected  by  a bridge  or  a ladder.  In  heaven’s 
plain  are  trees  and  wells,  a river  and  rocks;  weaving, 
weeping,  marrying,  and  holding  of  assemblies.  One 
god  is  spoken  of  as  gone  to  hunt  birds  and  catch 
fish.  All  this  confirms  the  statement  that  the  word 
Kami , or  “god,”  had  a low  and  indistinct  meaning. 


ANIMALS,  ANCESTORS,  AND  EMPERORS  AS  GODS.  49 

Their  religion,  in  brief,  was  a kind  of  nature  worship 
and  ancestor  worship  combined  called  Shamanism,  or 
mythical  zoology.  The  sun,  moon,  and  trees,  serpents, 
foxes,  and  other  animals,  as  well  as  myriads  of  unseen 
spirits,  good  and  bad,  including  also  the  spirits  of  dead 
ancestors,  are  all  objects  of  worship.  In  Shamanism, 
sometimes  called  Animism,  there  may  be  some  concep- 
tion of  a single  supreme,  all-powerful  Creator;  usually 
there  is  not,  but  the  government  of  the  world  and  its 
surroundings  are  believed  to  lie  in  the  hands  of  legions 
of  spirits,  of  gods  and  demons.  In  time  of  disaster, 
famine,  epidemic,  etc. , they  imagined  the  universe  to  be 
overcrowded  with  evil  demons,  that  must  be  propitiated 
by  magic  ritual,  incantations,  and  even  sacrifices.  (See 
“Religions  of  Japan,”  by  Griffis,  p.  15.) 

The  souls  of  dead  parents  were  imagined  as  gods,  with 
power  to  bless  or  curse,  and  this  element  of  ancestor 
worship  in  the  Shinto  religion  was  magnified  into  great 
importance  in  later  times.  The  conquering  Yamato- 
Japanese  adroitly  used  the  custom  of  paying  homage,  so 
as  to  magnify  their  Emperors  in  the  eyes  of  the  “ savage 
tribes,”  like  the  Ainus.  Proclaiming  their  Emperor  to 
be  the  Son  of  Heaven,  they  demanded  homage  for  him 
as  a divine  being  while  yet  alive.  Thus  gradually  the 
Emperor  became  the  head  and  center  of  the  Shinto  re- 
ligion, and  even  gods  as  well  as  men  must  obey  him  as 
Heaven’s  supreme  vicegerent  upon  earth.  This,  how- 
ever, is  not  a singular  thing  in  history.  See  how  for 
political  reasons  the  Roman  emperors  had  their  statues 
set  up  in  the  temples,  in  the  squares  and  corners  of 
streets  for  the  worship  of  the  people!  See  how  the 
popes  of  Rome  in  the  blazing  light  of  this  nineteenth 
century  have  gotten  themselves  proclaimed  infallible, 
and  as  Christ’s  vicegerents  upon  earth  claim  to  be  the 
4 


50 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


supreme  head  of  the  Church,  clothed  with  temporal  pow- 
er as  well!  We  need  not  marvel,  therefore,  at  a similar 
exaltation  of  Japanese  Emperors  as  divine  and  as  the 
head  of  their  religion  and  state  alike. 

Of  dogma,  or  moral  teaching  for  the  guidance  of  con- 
duct, the  Shinto  religion  (if  we  may  call  it  a religion) 
was  from  the  first  almost  destitute;  they  claimed  that 
commandments  and  codes  of  conduct  were  not  needed 
for  the  Japanese;  such  things  were  invented  by  the  Chi- 
nese because  they  were  an  immoral  people  with  bad 
hearts. 

In  those  prehistoric  days  the  same  word  was  used 
alike  for  palace  and  temple  ( Miya),  pointing  back  unmis- 
takably to  a patriarchal  system,  the  father  of  the  tribe 
being  its  king  and  priest  in  one  person.  And  there  are 
indications  that  at  the  first  the  Emperor  offered  sacrifi- 
cial worship,  performing  religious  rites  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  his  people — first  to  Heaven,  and  then  to  his 
own  ancestors  and  other  gods.  The  priests  in  that  early 
and  simple  period  of  society  were  not  a separate  class. 
Upon  fixed  days  the  Emperor  performed  the  sacred  cer- 
emony of  washing  himself  as  the  representative  of  his 
people,  but  afterwards  a prince  of  the  house*  or  high 
official  of  the  court  was  sent  as  the  Emperor’s  proxy  to 
bathe  in  the  stream.  W e also  learn  that  the  three  sacred 
emblems — the  jewel,  mirror,  and  sword — at  first  kept  in 
the  royal  palace,  were  afterwards  removed  to  the  shrine 
in  Ise,  dedicated  to  the  heavenly  ancestress  Amaterasu, 
and  there  guarded  by  the  princess,  sister  of  the  Emper- 
or. It  thus  came  to  be  the  custom  for  a kind  of  high 
priestess  to  remain  at  the  central  national  shrine.  The 
separation  of  temple  from  palace  begun  at  Ise,  as  above 
mentioned,  was  followed  later  by  the  fixing  of  shrines 
in  various  places  over  the  country,  and  this,  of  course, 


CEREMONIAL  OFFERINGS. 


51 


called  for  a class  of  persons  to  take  charge  of  them — 
“temple  masters.” 

The  offerings  and  sacrifices  were  of  three  kinds  or 
more.  One  was  the  thank  offering , as  the  festival  of 
First  Fruits,  the  feast  of  tasting  the  first  rice.*  There 
was  also  at  first  a kind  of  monthly  festival  at  the  new 
moon;  afterwards  it  became  semiannual.  Offerings  of 
food  and  white  cloth  were  likewise  set  before  the 
shrines  of  their  gods.  The  white  cloth  is  now  repre- 
sented in  the  form  of  white  paper  cut  into  notched 
strips  in  a certain  way,  and  seen  to  this  day  in  Shinto 
temples  and  shrines.  Second,  the  Purification  festivals. 
Speaking  of  the  ceremony  of  bathing  by  the  Emperor 
calls  for  remark  upon  what  seems  to  have  been  always 
a characteristic  of  the  Japanese — a regard  for  cleanli- 
ness, being  in  this  respect  different  from  the  Chinese. 
If  not  holiness  in  a moral  sense,  physical  cleanliness  is 
at  least  a great  matter  with  them.  If  “cleanliness  is 
next  to  godliness,”  as  saith  John  Wesley,  then  the  Jap- 
anese are  on  the  way  toward  godliness.  To  the  ancient 
Japanese  there  were  divers  occasions  of  defilement:  a 
snake  bite,  contact  of  bird  or  insect  with  one's  food, 
sickness,  and  the  circumstance  of  birth  or  death.  The 
last  two  being  the  most  serious  offenses  against  purity, 
separate  huts  were  built  for  one’s  birth  and  dying,  after 
which  they  were  burned  or  demolished.  This  probably 
explains  why  the  royal  palace  was  changed  after  the 
death  of  the  sovereign.  Persons  coming  in  contact 

* In  ancient  times  offerings  were  made  in  every  household 
to  the  New  Food  God,  in  royal  palace  and  in  huts  of  common 
people.  The  earth  itself  was  regarded  a god,  called  Abun- 
dant Food,  to  whom  the  head  of  each  family  must  present 
thank  offerings;  but  afterwards  this  was  performed  by  wom- 
en. There  are  also  gods  of  the  kitchen, 


52 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


with  another’s  birth  or  death  must  purify  themselves. 
Salt  was  also  used  for  ceremonial  purification,  and  at 
the  dedication  of  the  royal  palace  sake  brewed  from  rice 
was  sprinkled  to  purify  he  premises.* 

At  the  present  day,  before  the  person  approaches  the 
Shinto  temple,  he  carefully  washes  his  mouth  at  the 
sacred  stone  font  provided  for  the  purpose  in  the  tem- 
ple court,  and  wipes  clean  his  hands  with  the  towel 
hanging  above  it.  He  has  at  least  a clean  mouth  and  clean 
hands,  if  not  a clean  heart.  As  Griffis  says:  “The  root 
idea  of  sin  was  pollution.”  And  the  rituals  show  that 
from  early  times  the  “offenses”  or  defilements  were  to 
be  removed  to  the  lower  world  and  finally  got  rid  of. 
The  expiatory  offerings  standing  for  the  “offenses” 
were  cast  into  the  streams,  then  carried  into  the  sea, 
then  gulped  down  by  a deity  in  the  sea,  and  then  car- 
ried to  the  Bottom  Country,  and  so  finally  banished  and 
got  rid  of.  Third,  'propitiatory  offerings  among  the 
Japanese  included  human  sacrifices  to  certain  gods,  es- 
pecially when  about  to  go  forth  to  battle;  and  this  re- 
minds us  of  the  Greeks  of  Homer’s  time.  It  was  called 


* According  to  Mr.  Satow,  the  dedicatory  ceremony  dates 
from  the  setting  up  of  the  first  Emperor  Jimmu’s  capital  in 
Yamato  Province.  The  object  of  this  ceremony  was  to  pro- 
pitiate the  two  deities  of  timber  and  rice,  and  to  obtain  their 
protection  for  the  sovereign’s  abode  and  his  food  against  de- 
filement by  snakes,  crawling  worms,  or  birds  flying  in  through 
the  smoke  holes;  from  night  alarms  and  the  decay  of  the 
building.  Offerings  arranged  in  order  were  presented  to  the 
gods,  consisting  of  a mirror,  beads,  spear,  mantelet,  mulberry 
paper,  and  hempen  thread.  The  sacred  emblems  of  sov- 
ereignty (sword,  mirror,  and  precious  stone)  were  deposited 
in  the  royal  hall;  the  four  corners  of  the  building  were  hung 
with  red  beads,  while  sake,  rice,  and  cut  thread  were  scattered 
inside  the  four  corners. 


SUPERSTITIONS  MULTIPLY. 


53 


O-chi-matsu-ri , the  “honorable  blood  ceremony.”  In 
this  way  they  hoped  to  please  their  god  and  gain  victo- 
ry over  their  enemies.  For  example,  when  the  Empress 
Jingo  Kogo  was  about  to  invade  Korea  (200  A.D.)  the 
“Country’s  Great  Offerings”  were  made,  and  when  she 
reached  the  sea  other  offerings  were  made  to  the  sea 
god.  The  foundations  of  buildings  were  laid  upon  some 
human  victim  seized  for  that  purpose.  This  was  to  ap- 
pease the  demon  or  god  of  bad  luck.  Likewise  when 
dire  calamity  or  danger  fell  upon  them — the  flood,  vol- 
canic or  earthquake  upheaval,  famine  or  pestilence — 
human  victims  were  probably  offered  to  dragons  and  sea 
gods.  Anything,  in  fact,  that  was  precious  was  willing- 
ly given  up  to  satisfy  the  angry  gods  and  evil  spirits. 
When  a house  was  built  certain  ceremonies  were  ob- 
served and  arrows  shot  into  the  four  quarters  of  heaven 
to  ward  off  the  attack  of  evil  spirits.  This  dedication 
ceremony  may  be  seen  to-day,  and  is  a weird  and  curious 
affair.  At  stated  times  of  the  year  the  dwellings  are 
hung  around  with  rice  straw  ropes  to  ward  off  the  ap- 
proach of  evil,  and  even  trees  are  thus  festooned  for  the 
same  purpose.  The  curious  cult  of  sacred  trees,  ser- 
pents, horses,  foxes,  and  even  the  phallic  symbol,  to- 
gether with  that  of  the  demons  of  luck  and  misfortune, 
caused  to  spring  up  in  the  minds  of  the  ancient  Japanese, 
Koreans,  and  Tartar  peoples  north  of  China  a tangled 
undergrowth  of  superstitions  and  customs  that  still  ex- 
ist among  the  ignorant  classes  to  an  extent  little  under- 
stood by  many  modern  civilized  Japanese. 

Nor  is  the  reason  far  to  seek.  The  knowledge  of 
the  true  God,  the  one  Creator  and  Divine  Father,  both 
unifies  and  separates — unifies  all  the  changes  and  ob- 
jects of  the  universe  under  one  intelligent  system  of 
government,  and  separates  the  Creator  from  the  ere- 


54 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


ated  world.  But  when  the  “boundary  line  between 
the  Creator  and  his  world,  or  the  eternal  difference  be- 
tween mind  and  matter,  is  not  clear,  then  anything  that 
lives,  moves,  or  has  power  may  be  a god.”  The  result 
is,  that  to  the  bedarkened  mind  and  imagination,  in  the 
whole  world  of  sky  above,  in  the  air  around,  upon,  and 
in  the  earth,  in  the  waters  of  the  great  deep,  and  in  the 
dark  regions  of  the  lower  world,  there  are  multitudes 
of  gods  and  goddesses,  demons,  good  or  evil,  who  are 
to  be  dreaded,  worshiped,  or  appeased. 

Nevertheless  we  welcome  the  fact  that  there  is  a basis 
of  truth,  however  much  obscured,  in  all  that  confused 
mass  of  traditions  and  superstitions.  One  of  these 
truths  relates  to  the  divine  origin  of  man.  When  we 
read  in  the  Ko-ji-ki  that  the  ancestors  of  the  Japanese 
are  the  descendants  of  the  Heaven  Shining  Great  Au- 
gust Deity  it  reminds  us  of  the  closing  words  of  St. 
Luke’s  genealogies:  “The  son  of  Adam,  which  w;as  the 
son  of  God.”  (Luke  iii.  38.)  Another  truth  held  by  the 
primitive  Japanese  as  a thing  taken  for  granted  was  the 
future  life  of  the  soul.  The  existence  and  life  of  their 
ancestors  is  logically  implied  in  the  custom  of  ancestor 
worship. 

V.  Political  Ideas  and  Manner  of  Rule. 

Concerning  the  settlement  and  political  beginnings  of 
the  Japanese  nation  as  gathered  from  the  Ko-ji-ki,  we  are 
able  to  sift  out  a few  conclusions: 

1.  If  the  legends  of  the  so-called  “divine  age”  were 
credible,  we  should  have  to  believe  that  races  of  gods 
held  sway  for  a long  time  in  the  land  of  Japan,  who  re- 
sisted successfully  the  first,  second,  and  third  expedi- 
tions sent  from  heaven  to  quell  the  “painfully  uproar- 
ious” and  “savage  deities,”  but  that  afterwards  the 


POLITICAL  IDEAS  AND  MANNED  OF  KULE. 


Deity-Master  of  the  Great  Land  abdicated  in  favor  of  the 
August  Grand  Child,  Ninigi,  whom  the  sun  goddess 
wished  to  make  sovereign  of  the  country. 

2.  According  to  the  earliest  traditions,  Idzumo,  on  the 
west  coast,  is  prior  to  Yamato;  moreover  it  is  neither 
Idzumo  nor  Yamato  to  which  Ninigi  descends  from 
heaven,  but  in  the  land  of  Kiushiu,  in  the  southwest, 
where  his  people,  afterwards  called  Yamato- Japanese, 
made  their  first  settlement. 

3.  At  first  the  government  was  not  autocratic,  but 
there  was  some  kind  of  assembly  in  which  important 
matters  were  discussed  and  decided.  (“History  of  the 
Empire  of  Japan,”  p.  26.)  These  assemblies  were  doubt- 
less similar  to  the  village  assemblies  of  early  tribes  in 
all  parts  of  the  world.  The  government  was  for  many 
centuries  a mixed  patriarchal  feudalism. 

4.  Jimmu,  the  first  of  the  Yamato- Japanese  rulers, 
was  only  a fighting,  conquering  chief,  whose  eastward 
march  from  his  original  settlement  in  Kiushiu  was  re- 
sisted by  a “number  of  other  chieftains,  each  exerci- 
sing sovereignty  in  his  own  district.”  (Id.,  p.  26.) 
His  march  was  by  slow  stages,  with  successive  settle- 
ments for  a considerable  time  in  several  places,  requir- 
ing more  than  sixteen  years  in  passing  from  Kiushiu  to 
the  river’s  mouth  at  Naniha,  now  the  city  of  Osaka,  a 
distance  of  three  hundred  miles  in  a straight  line.  The 
Japanese  authors  just  quoted  are  constrained  to  say 
(p.  32)  that  “ Jimmu’s  sway  was  limited  to  a few  dis- 
tricts in  the  neighborhood  of  Yamato,”  but  the  Ko-ji-ki 
tells  that  Jimmu’s  elder  brother  was  killed  in  the  bat- 
tle with  the  native  rulers  of  Yamato.  That  Jimmu 
and  his  successors  had  for  a long  time  only  a limited 
sway  is  clear:  (a)  From  the  number  of  tribes  living  in 
the  country,  the  Kumaso  people,  the  Kosliis,  Idzumos, 


56 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


the  Kibi  tribe,  and  in  the  east  the  Emeshi.  ( b ) The 
many  and  long  campaigns  of  the  Yamato- Japanese 
chiefs  against  these  tribes,  and  the  fact  that  for  hun- 
dreds of  years  they  were  not  effectually  conquered. 
Even  as  late  as  the  first  century  of  our  era,  Yamato- 
Dake,  the  great  warrior  prince,  had  to  spend  his  whole 
life  fighting  these  tribes,  one  after  another,  and  died  be- 
fore returning  to  the  capital.  As  late  as  the  regency 
of  Queen  Jingo  Koge  (about  A.D.  200),  eight  hundred 
and  fifty  years  after  Jimmu’s  time,  there  was  no  settled 
or  widely  extended  empire,  (c)  The  mention  of  “ter- 
torial  owners,”  even  of  Yamato  and  of  the  “rulers”  of 
Idzumo,  with  many  other  facts,  clearly  shows  that  Jim- 
mu  and  his  successors  were  for  many  centuries  rulers  of 
only  a part  of  what  is  now  Japan,  and  that  their  domin- 
ions were  extended  slowly  by  fighting.  So  that,  while 
in  honor  of  the  imperial  house  the  early  rulers  of  Ja- 
pan may  be  spoken  of  as  Emperors  and  their  dominion 
as  an  empire,  it  is  not  historically  correct;  on  the  con- 
trary, Jimmu  was  the  same  kind  of  a warrior  chieftain 
as  those  of  the  Danes  or  the  Norsemen  who  led  their 
followers  fierce  and  strong  from  the  north  country  into 
England.  All  was  rough,  heroic,  and  fierce,  and  there 
were  laid  the  beginnings  of  a nationality  which  has  re- 
mained unbroken  by  any  foreign  power  to  this  day.  But 
those  beginnings  were  laid  in  struggle  and  by  conquest 
of  the  weaker  peoples  already  in  the  country.*  And 
for  many  centuries  after  their  first  so-called  Emperor  it 

* We  cannot  understand  the  ground  for  the  statement  by 
the  Japanese  authors  (“History  of  the  Empire  of  Japan,' * 
p 16)  that  “the  Japanese  Empire  has  an  origin  different 
from  that  of  other  states.  It  owes  nothing  to  aggression, 
conquest,’’  etc.  This  is  certainly  incorrect,  the  Ko-ji-ki  being 
witness. 


POLITICAL  IDEAS  AND  MANNER  OF  RULE. 


57 


was  no  empire,  certainly  not  until  after  Jingo’s  invasion 
and  conquest  of  Southern  Korea.  As  to  Queen  Jingo’s 
conquest  of  Korea,  however,  Griffis  has  serious  doubts, 
and  Prof.  Chamberlain  says:  “There  is  no  mention 

of  the  subjugation  of  Korea  in  Chinese  or  Korean  his- 
tories, and  the  dates  given  in  the  Nihongi  clearly  show 
the  inconsistency  of  the  whole  story.” 

Still  the  evidences  of  contact  with  Korea  are  so  nu- 
merous, and  the  fighting  qualities  of  the  early  Japa- 
nese being  reasonably  assumed,  we  need  not  reject  the 
story  of  the  Korean  invasion  as  entirely  unhistorical. 
As  for  the  Chinese,  they  were  leaders  in  civilization 
for  three  thousand  years  before  Christ,  and  naturally 
became  the  teachers  first  of  the  Koreans  and  then  of 
the  Japanese;  for  the  conquest  of  Korea  by  the  Japa- 
nese under  Queen  Jingo  was  the  opening  of  the  chan- 
nel for  a stream  of  enlightenment  to  flow  from  China 
and  Korea,  a stream  that  flowed  for  many  centuries. 

About  the  year  285  A.D.  the  tribute  from  Korea  was 
brought  by  Wani,  said  to  be  a scholar  who  subsequently 
taught  that  crown  prince  who  afterwards  became  Em- 
peror Nintoku.  (See  p.  46.)  This  Korean  teacher  was 
naturalized,  it  is  said,  and  his  descendants  were  teach- 
ers at  court,  and  therefore  we  may  suppose  that  a few  of 
the  court  officials  and  princes  learned  to  read  and  write 
a little  Chinese.  At  least  by  the  year  400  A.D.  the 
reigning  sovereign  sent  out  secretaries  or  chroniclers  to 
the  seats  of  the  district  rulers  for  the  purpose  of  record- 
ing and  forwarding  to  the  capital  important  events  and 
doings.  Hence  it  is  probably  safe  to  say  that  reliable 
Japanese  history  began  about  400  A.D. 


CHAPTER  II. 

CIVILIZA TL ON  FR OM  THE  CONTINENT  BR 0 UOHT IN. 

I.  Introduction  of  Buddhism  and  Confucianism. 

Religion  is  the  most  powerful  of  all  the  things  that 
shape  a nation’s  civilization.  This  is  so  because  reli- 
gious beliefs  strike  deeper  into  the  heart.  As  is  their 
religion  so  are  a people’s  thought  and  life.  Now  we  are 
come  to  the  time  when  a new  and  foreign  religion  is 
brought  in.  The  introduction  of  Buddhism  marks  a 
most  important  date  in  the  history  of  the  Japanese.,  It 
was  in  555  A.D.,  in  the  reign  of  Kimmei  Tenno,  the 
twenty-ninth  Emperor.  In  that  year  the  ambassador 
from  a tributary  state  in  Korea  brought  over  an  image 
of  Shaka  (the  Buddha)  as  a gift  to  the  Emperor,  also 
some  books  explaining  the  Buddhist  doctrines. 

As  Japan  looked  upon  Korea  and  China  as  much  ad- 
vanced, and  as  the  ambassador  was  not  backward  in 
commending  the  new  religion,  informing  his  majesty 
that  all  the  great  countries  this  side  of  India  had  ac- 
cepted the  Buddhist  religion,  the  Emperor  was  there- 
fore favorably  impressed,  His  Prime  Minister,  Iname, 
likewise  favored  the  new  religion.  But  two  other  min- 
isters of  state  said:  “Not  so;  our  country  has  its  own 
gods,  and  they  perhaps  will  be  angry  if  we  worship  a 
foreign  god.”  The  Emperor  said:  “Let  Iname  try  it.” 
And  he,  taking  the  image,  forthwith  set  it  up  in  a.  room 
or  shrine  in  his  own  house,  and  prayed  to  the  new  god. 
But  very  soon  there  broke  out  upon  the  people  an  epi- 
demic which  the  two  ministers  of  state  in  superstitious 
(58) 


BUDDHISM  BROUGHT  IN. 


59 


fear  declared  was  a punishment  for  the  worship  of  the 
“foreign  god.”  At  their  earnest  entreaty  the  Emperor 
ordered  the  image  to  he  thrown  into  the  canal  * (where 
now  stands  the  great  city  of  Osaka)  and  the  house  to  he 
destroyed.  Thus  the  first  effort  to  bring  in  Buddhism 
failed. 

Still  later  another  and  more  successful  attempt  was 
made,  not,  however,  without  hitter  opposition.  This 
time  two  priests,  a nun,  and  an  image  maker,  some 
hooks  and  images,  and  a temple  carpenter  were  all  sent 
from  Korea  to  the  then  reigning  Emperor.  In  a little 
while  the  Prime  Minister,  Umako,  who  had  succeeded 
his  father,  Iname,  huilt  temples  and  pagodas  to  Buddha. 
Once  more,  as  the  story  goes,  a pestilence  broke  out 
among  the  people,  once  more  court  officials  protested 
to  the  Emperor  against  the  new  gods  and  the  new  reli- 
gion as  being  the  cause  of  the  people’s  afflictions,  and 
once  more  the  decree  went  forth  prohibiting  the  worship 
of  Buddha  and  commanding  temples  to  he  burned  and 
images  thrown  into  the  sea.  But  the  plague  stayed  not; 
it  grew  rather  worse,  and  was  explained  to  he  a punish- 
ment sent  from  Buddha,  who  had  been  insulted,  and  the 
Prime  Minister  now  got  permission  from  the  Emperor 
to  worship  Buddha  in  his  own  house. 

The  next  Emperor  was  for  a long  time  ill,  and  suf- 
fered so  much  that  it  occurred  to  him  he  should  wor- 
ship the  new  god,  Buddha.  The  matter  was  discussed 
by  his  ministers  of  state,  and  resulted  in  the  formation 
of  two  parties  at  court,  the  anti-Buddhists  and  pro- 
Buddhists.  A Buddhist  priest  was  brought  in  to  min- 
ister by  prayer  and  offerings  in  behalf  of  the  sick  Em- 

* Afterwards,  when  Buddhism  triumphed,  a temple  was 
built  near  the  place  Avhere  that  first  image  had  been  thrown 
into  the  water . 


60  japan:  country,  court,  people. 

peror;  but  he  died,  and  this  was  the  occasion  of  an  out- 
break between  the  two  parties.  The  Prime  Minister, 
Umako,  and  the  Regent,  Prince  Shotoku,  led  a body  of 
troops  against  the  anti-Buddhists,  killing  their  leader 
and  another  minister  of  state.  The  opponents  of  the 
new  religion  were  now  either  put  out  of  the  way  or  de- 
prived of  political  power,  and  Prince  Shotoku  and  the 
Prime  Minister  devoted  themselves  with  great  zeal  to 
preaching  the  new  faith.  Thenceforth  Buddhism  began 
its  triumphant  course,  its  first  victory  being  won  by  the 
sword.  Umako,  still  Prime  Minister,  and  still  powerful 
in  the  government,  sent  persons  to  Korea  to  study  the 
Buddhist  doctrines,  and  he  set  apart  a number  of  priests 
and  nuns,  and  built  temples  for  the  new  religion. 

But  it  was  in  the  reign  of  a woman,  a later  sovereign, 
named  Suiko,  that  Buddhism  was  publicly  adopted  as 
the  religion  of  the  sovereign  and  the  court.  She  issued  a 
proclamation  to  her  subjects  approving  of  the  Buddhist 
religion.  Her  Regent  and  nephew,  Prince  Shotoku,  en- 
couraged her  in  all  this,  and  is  known  as  the  founder 
of  Buddhism  in  Japan.  The  Buddhist  priests  would 
not  like  to  claim  a woman  as  their  founder.  Shotoku 
is  held  in  greatest  reverence,  and  is  said  to  have  been  a 
prodigy  from  birth,  that  he  could  speak  from  the  hour 
he  was  born,  could  attend  to  many  things  at  the  same 
time,  and  had  a wonderful  memory;  hence  is  sometimes 
named  the  Prince  of  Eight  Ears.  Using  all  his  author- 
ity and  influence  in  favor  of  the  new  faith,  orders  were 
issued  to  the  crown  prince  and  other  princes  of  the 
blood,  and  to  the  high  ministers  of  state,  to  have  images 
made  and  set  up.  Ranks  of  honor  were  conferred  upon 
image  makers,  and  grants  of  rice  lands  bestowed  upon 
them.  In  the  old  central  provinces  many  temples  were 
built.  It  is  indeed  said  that  several  of  the  oldest  Buddhist 


THE  RULERS  EMBRACE  BUDDHISM. 


61 


temples  in  Yamato  and  the  central  provinces  date  their 
foundation  from  Shotoku’s  time.  He  had  large  copper 
images  of  Buddha  made  for  each  government  officer,  the 
king  of  Korea  sending  a contribution  of  gold  for  the  ex- 
pense. The  officials  of  the  government,  following  the 
Regent’s  example,  rivaled  each  other  in  building  tem- 
ples and  supporting  them  at  their  own  expense. 

After  thirty  years  as  Regent  and  chief  man  in  the  gov- 
ernment, Shotoku  died,  but  Buddhism  went  on.  The 
very  next  year  the  priests,  nuns,  and  believers  in  Bud- 
dha had  become  so  numerous,  and  temples  were  in 
so  many  places,  that  a general  superintendent,  or  high 
priest — a Korean,  by  the  way — had  to  be  appointed. 

A few  years  after  Shotoku’s  death,  Umako,  the  ven- 
erable Prime  Minister,  died,  and  soon  after  him  Suiko, 
the  aged  Empress.  Thus  the  three  advocates  and  found- 
ers of  Buddhism  were  all  taken  away,  but  the  new  reli- 
gion was  so  well  planted  in  the  soil  of  Japan  that  it  was 
destined  to  completely  change  the  mind  of  the  nation. 

Summing  up,  we  find  that  from  the  first  effort  to  in- 
troduce Buddhism  to  Suiko’s  death  (630  A.D.)  seventy- 
five  years  elapsed.  During  the  first  thirty- two  years  of 
that  period  it  failed  to  get  a footing,  but  during  the 
next  forty-three  years  it  gradually  extended  through- 
out the  land. 

Another  noteworthy  fact  is  that  its  first  converts 
were  the  rulers  and  princes  at  court.  The  Empress 
Suiko  did  for  Buddhism  what  Constantine  the  Great 
did  for  Christianity  in  the  Roman  Empire.  Since  this 
was  the  best  she  had  ever  heard,  it  is  creditable  to  the 
woman’s  heart  that  she  so  readily  embraced  the  new 
foreign  religion  and  extended  it  among  her  subjects. 

A brief  account  of  this  religion  is  in  order.  Bud- 
dhism was  originated  in  India  by  a man  whose  name 


62 


japan:  counts  y,  couet,  people. 


was  Gautama  (Shakya  Muni),  born  probably  about  500 
B.C.  The  time  of  his  birth  is  uncertain. 

Taking  a dark  view  of  the  world  and  of  human  life, 
he  forsook  his  wife  and  little  son  and  went  away  into 
the  hills.  There  he  joined  himself  to  a hermit  living 
in  a cave,  but  being  disappointed  in  not  finding  deliv- 
erance from  doubt  and  evil  in  the  hermit’s  teachings, 
he  went  forth  again  and  spent  a long  time  in  meditation 
and  self-denial  in  the  lonely  fields.  Finally,  when 
weakened  and  reduced  in  body,  he  found,  as  he  imag- 
ined, the  True  Path. 

He  had  reached  the  conclusion  that  all  evil  is  the  re- 
sult of  desire,  and  all  desire  is  the  consequence  of  indi- 
vidual existence;  hence  he  concluded  that  the  only  way 
to  get  rid  of  evil  is  to  get  rid  of  desire  and  of  individual 
existence.  He  also  got  the  idea  that  for  wrong  deeds, 
or  indulgences  in  one’s  life,  their  effects  must  be  suf- 
fered in  the  next  life,  and  so  the  ills  and  sorrows  that 
we  now  suffer  are  the  result  of  bad  deeds  in  a former 
state  of  existence.  This  suffering  in  one  lifetime  the 
effects  of  deeds  done  in  a previous  lifetime  is  known  as 
the  law  of  Kharma. 

Now  as  no  one  is  able  to  get  rid  of  desire  in  one  life- 
time, and  as  every  one  must  suffer  according  to  the  law 
of  Kharma,  so  when  one  dies  he  must  be  born  again  in 
another  form,  generally  an  animal  of  some  kind — a 
beast,  reptile,  or  worm.  This  doctrine  of  being  reborn 
in  another  form  after  one  dies  is  the  doctrine  of  trans- 
migration of  souls,  as  held  by  the  Greeks  and  other  an- 
cient peoples.  If  one  has  been  very  bad,  the  next  time 
he  is  born  he  will  have  to  be  a hog,  loathsome  snake, 
or  vile  worm.  And  so  there  are  for  every  one  cycles  of 
living,  dying,  and  being  reborn,  that  go  on  for  ages  and 
ages  indefinitely.  Finally  a few,  and  only  a few,  reach 


THE  BUDDHIST  SYSTEM. 


63 


a state  of  deliverance  called  Nirvana.  But  what  does 
Nirvana  mean?  It  means  either  the  end  of  all  existence, 
annihilation,  so  say  some  scholars;  or  reabsorption  of 
the  soul  back  into  the  changeless  ocean  of  existence,  so 
say  others.  Practically,  either  way  amounts  to  the  same 
thing,  for  it  is  a salvation  that  ends  in  losing  all  individual 
existence  and  activity.  The  soul  has  been  literally  lost. 
He  also  taught  that  the  world  passes  through  cycles  of 
development,  followed  by  corresponding  periods  of  de- 
cay, and  that  for  each  world  cycle  there  is  some  sort  of 
incarnation  such  as  Buddha  himself  was.  In  some  of 
the  previous  cycles  the  incarnation  had  been  in  the  form 
of  an  animal.'55' 

As  Shakya  Muni,  the  founder,  left  his  own  wife  and 
children,  so  he  taught  that  in  order  to  reach  the  state 
of  Nirvana  no  one  could  marry,  and  hence  his  earlier 
disciples  in  India  were  monks  and  nuns.  And  so 
Buddhism,  as  originally  taught,  was  not  only  atheistic 
and  materialistic,  since  Shaky  a left  never  a word  about 
God  or  a first  creating  cause  of  the  world,  but  it  was 
also  unfriendly  to  the  family  and  social  life  of  mankind. 
Knowing  nothing  of  the  one  true  and  living  God  and 
Heavenly  Father,  this  dreary  system  had  at  first  no 
God,  no  Saviour,  and  no  worship.  Afterwards,  how- 
ever, as  it  spread  from  India  into  China,  Siam,  and 
other  countries,  it  was  changed,  many  gods  and  god- 
’ desses  being  gradually  added,  Shakya  Muni,  named 
the  Buddha  (Dai  Butsu  in  Japanese),  being  consid- 
ered the  chief  god.  The  blank  idea  of  a motionless, 
dead  state  of  existence,  Nirvana,  was  also  changed  into 
something  more  real  and  pleasing  to  the  senses.  And 

*It  is  difficult  to  decide  whether  Gautama  himself  taught 
this  theory  of  world  cycles  and  incarnations,  or  whether  his 
disciples  foisted  it  upon  his  system. 


64 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


when  the  Buddhists  came  over  from  Korea  into  Japan 
they  brought  images,  ceremonies,  and  superstitions. 
They  had  temples,  altars,  and  priests.  They  taught 
penance,  but  allowed  all  to  marry  and  engage  in  the 
business  of  the  world  except  the  priests  and  nuns. 
They  proclaimed  a doctrine  of  jigoku  (hell),  with  its 
monstrous  devils  and  burning  flames,  where  in  purga- 
torial torments  the  wicked  are  consigned;  and  paradise 
( gokiuraku ),  rude  and  sensuous,  where  the  faithful  are 
happy.  As  we  shall  see  later,  the  eating  of  flesh  and 
the  killing  of  animals  was  forbidden,  as  in  other  Bud- 
dhist countries.  This  was  to  avoid,  as  they  supposed, 
the  eating  of  a grandfather,  or  a father,  who  might 
have  been  reborn  as  a pig,  cow,  or  some  other  animal, 
the  thought  of  which  would  have  been  horrible  to  their 
children. 

The  moral  teachings  of  Buddhism,  as  far  as  they  go, 
are  not  bad,  and  may  be  summed  up  in  the  five  com- 
mandments: (1)  Against  stealing,  (2)  against  lying,  (3) 
against  intemperance,  (4)  against  murder,  (5)  against 
adultery. 

Resuming  the  story  of  the  sj)read  of  Buddhism,  after 
the  death  of  Empress  Suiko,  we  find  that,  once  adopted 
by  the  rulers,  the  spread  of  this  religion  goes  on  apace, 
so  that  not  many  decades  pass  before  the  reigning  sov- 
ereign commanded  every  house  to  have  a Buddhist 
altar,  and  forbade  the  slaying  of  animals  and  eating  of 
flesh,  and  a sovereign  commanded  copies  of  Buddhist 
scriptures  to  be  written,  and  images  to  be  made  for  the 
governors  of  provinces,  and  temples  to  be  built  for 
priests  and  nuns.  If  man  could  be  made  religious  and 
good  by  commands  of  earthly  rulers,  and  by  building 
temples  and  casting  images,  then  the  Japanese  ought 
to  have  been  the  best  of  people.  As  a fact,  however, 


FOUNDING  OF  NARA,  THE  NEW  CAPITAL. 


65 


most  of  the  common  people  living  in  back-lying  dis- 
tricts would  fain  hold  on  to  their  old  gods,  worshiping 
the  sun  and  moon  and  dead  ancestors.  It  was  in  this 
period  that  Nara,  the  capital,  was  built  in  Yamato 
Province. 

The  founding  of  the  new  capital  was  the  work  of 
Gemmyo  (A.D.  710),  another  female  sovereign.  Hith- 
erto the  capital  had  been  moved  from  place  to  place,  a 
new  one  being  set  up  every  time  a sovereign  died;  but 
then  it  became  fixed  for  about  eighty  years.  The  pal- 
ace and  left  and  right  halves  of  the  new  capital  are 
built  in  a style  and  size  never  before  known.  During 
the  Nara  epoch  prosperity  and  progress  were  marked; 
and  nothing  could  exceed  the  devotion  of  the  imperial 
house  to  the  Buddhist  religion,  says  a Japanese  histo- 
rian. Here  at  Nara  they  built  the  temple  of  Todaiji, 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  in  the  land,  and  in  which 
rests  the  celebrated  image  of  Buddha.  This  image  of 
bronze  is  enormous  in  size,  being  fifty-seven  feet  high, 
the  head  and  shoulders  proportionately  large.  As  usual, 
the  image  sits  upon  a huge  lotus  flower.  It  is  the  lar- 
gest image  of  Buddha  in  Japan.  Here,  too,  is  a magnifi- 
cent sacred  grove,  more  than  one  hundred  years  old,  in 
which  gentle  deer  roam  at  will  and  are  fed  from  the 
hands  of  pious  pilgrims,  nuns,  and  residents.  How  do 
they  know  but  that  they  may  in  this  way  be  feeding  an 
ancestor,  whose  soul  has  been  reborn  in  the  deer  form? 
On  either  side  of  the  road  to  the  town  there  is  a row  of 
towering  cryptomerias  and  stone- columned  lanterns, 
making  a beautiful  avenue  of  approach.  One  of  the 
oldest  towns  in  the  country,  with  its  temples,  groves, 
and  imperial  tombs,  Nara  is  still  held  in  reverence  and 
much  frequented  by  native  pilgrims  and  foreign  tour- 
ists. 


o 


66 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


The  priests  of  Buddhism  have  now  become  important 
personages  at  court,  as  personal  friends  and  advisers  of 
the  ruler.  It  is  related  of  one  of  them,  named  Gyogi, 
who  had  been  elevated  to  the  position  of  prelate  at  court 
and  archbishop  of  the  country  at  large,  that  he  was  the 
first  to  teach  the  doctrine  of  Buddha’s  incarnations.  As 
indicated  above,  though  the  rulers  were  all  enthusiastic 
disciples  of  the  Buddhist  faith,  the  masses  of  the  nation 
still  preferred  their  old  Shinto  gods,  who,  as  they  be- 
lieved, were  the  ancestors  of  their  race,  the  founders  of 
their  state,  to  whom  indeed  they  owed  the  very  exist- 
ence of  their  nation.  Now  this  prejudice  of  the  people 
the  Buddhist  priests  cunningly  overcame  by  saying  that 
Amaterasu,  whom  all  the  Japanese  worship  as  the  sun 
goddess  and  ancestress  of  their  first  Emperor,  was  her- 
self an  incarnation  of  Buddha.  Thus  Gyogi  and  his 
priests  began  the  policy  of  compromise  by  preaching  to 
the  multitude  in  such  a way  as  to  give  good  standing  to 
the  old  national  gods  of  the  land,  and  at  the  same  time 
get  them  to  accept  Buddhism,  with  Buddha  as  their 
chief  god.  This  compromising  policy  worked  well. 
When  people’s  prejudices  are  satisfied,  they  will  more 
easily  practice  an  inconsistency. 

When  the  capital  was  removed  from  Nara  to  Kioto 
(A.D.  794),  not  only  the  Emperor,  great  nobles,  and 
high  officials,  but  the  people  also,  began  to  accept  Bud- 
dhism as  the  orthodox  faith.  After  the  new  capital  had 
been  laid  but  and  the  imperial  palaces  erected,  all  on  a 
scale  of  magnificence  that  eclipsed  the  Nara  capital,  the 
priests  commanding  the  patronage  of  the  rulers  and 
contributions  of  the  upper  classes  built  great  temples 
and  pagodas  in  a style  of  architecture  and  wealth  that 
rivaled  even  the  imperial  buildings.  The  priests,  now 
a great  multitude,  have  become  proprietors  of  broad 


BUDDHISM  IN  POWER. 


67 


estates,  and  the  head  priests,  at  least,  have  the  wealth 
and  position  of  high  government  officials.  Buddhism 
is  now  the  established  religion,  supported  every  way  by 
the  government. 

A little  later  a movement  to  popularize  Buddhism 
throughout  the  land  was  again  taken  up.  There  lived 
at  this  time  two  remarkable  priests,  who  went  to  China 
to  study,  and  returned,  one  of  them  to  found  a new 
Buddhist  sect,  and  to  build  near  the  new  capital  a cele- 
brated temple  on  Mount  Heizan  overlooking  the  palace. 
This  temple  was  to  protect  the  imperial  family  from  bad 
luck,  evil  spirits,  and  the  like,  which,  as  they  believed, 
came  from  the  northeast.  Taking  up  the  compromising 
work  named  above,  these  two  priests  pushed  it  still  far- 
ther. Going  through  the  country  as  popular  preachers, 
they  taught  that  all  of  the  Japanese  gods  were  manifes- 
tations of  the  one  divine  being,  Buddha.  The  result 
was  a mixed  religion  of  Buddhism  and  Shintoism,  and 
thus  the  new  religion  was  completely  popularized  with 
the  people.  They  saw  their  old  national  gods  not  dis- 
carded, but  given  honorable  rank  in  the  Buddhist  pan- 
theon of  gods  and  goddesses,  and  this  pleased  them. 
The  adroit  and  time-serving  Buddhist  priests  even  par- 
ticipated in  the  ceremony  of  Gosaeye — the  procession  and 
worship  of  the  imperial  ancestors  of  the  land.  A few 
facts  illustrating  how  completely  Buddhism  had  gained 
the  day  may  be  added: 

1.  It  became  a custom  with  the  Emperors,  after  sit- 
ting upon  the  throne  for  a short  while,  to  abdicate  and 
become  priest- kings,  retiring  with  shaven  heads  to  some 
temple  palace. 

2.  The  codes  of  law  established  in  a former  period 
were  afterwards  almost  entirely  set  aside  by  Buddhist 
teachings  and  sanctions. 


(68) 


THE  CHINESE  LEARNING. 


69 


3.  The  great  temples  and  monasteries  at  Kioto,  and 
the  one  at  Kara,  became  castles  and  camps  for  the  train- 
ing of  soldiers.  The  priests  and  lord  high  abbots, 
haughty  and  powerful,  wished  to  be  surrounded  by 
bodies  of  priestly  soldiers,  and  on  more  than  one  occa- 
sion they  marched,  armed  and  armored,  into  Kioto  to 
enforce  with  spears  and  long  swords  their  demand  upon 
the  government.  One  of  the  Emperors  had  to  invite  a 
powerful  general  of  the  Minamoto  clan  to  come  to  the 
capital  to  defend  him  against  those  temple  priests  and 
soldiers.  What  a contrast  this,  since  the  time  when  by 
command  of  an  Emperor  the  image  of  Buddha  was  cast 
into  the  sea  and  the  shrine  destroyed!  but  that  was 
more  than  five  hundred  years  previous. 

II.  The  Chinese  Learning. 

Along  with  Buddhism  came  the  Chinese  learning. 
Having  no  written  language  of  their  own,  the  mastery 
of  the  complex  Chinese  characters,  to  know  them  at 
sight,  write  them  correctly,  and  to  use  the  proper  ones 
for  their  Japanese  words,  must  have  been  a most  difficult 
task.  It  is  not  surprising,  then,  that  so  many  years 
passed  from  the  time  when  W ani  brought  the  characters 
over  from  Korea  till  the  day  when  the  Japanese  wrote 
their  first  book*  in  those  Chinese  characters.  The  first 
writings  by  Japanese  consisted  of  brief  chronicles  of 
events  and  doings  reported  to  the  central  government. 
In  ancient  times  the  writing  men  belonged  to  a certain 
family,  this  knowledge  or  art  being  handed  down  from 
father  to  son.  Accordingly  Wani,  who  was  originally 
a Korean,  became  a naturalized  subject,  and  he  and  his 
descendants  were  kept  at  the  capital  to  write  and  teach 


*See  Ko-ji-ki,  oldest  extant  book,  711  A.D. 


70 


japan:  court,  country,  people. 


the  Chinese  characters.  This  became  their  authorized 
and  hereditary  profession.  In  process  of  time  schools 
were  set  up  for  the  teaching  of  young  princes,  sons  of 
nobles,  and  high  officials.  After  the  removal  of  the 
capital  to  Kioto  a sort  of  central  university,  so  called, 
was  opened,  where  history,  Chinese  classics,*  law,  and 
mathematics  were  studied.  About  this  time  a few 
schools  were  also  opened  in  some  of  the  principal  pro- 
vincial towns  for  the  sons  of  governors  and  other  chief 
officials.  In  the  so-called  university  at  Kioto  almost 
nothing  of  our  modern  sciences  was  known.  Medicine, 
botany,  and  the  anatomy  in  vogue  in  China  probably 
received  some  attention.  In  China  it  seems  that  certain 
men  were  appointed  to  experiment  with  medicine  upon 
monkeys,  and  to  dissect  their  bodies.  In  this  way 
charts  and  diagrams  were  made,  and  these  were  proba- 
bly used  in  Japan,  but  were  afterwards  found  to  be  im- 
perfect and  false.  It  came  to  pass  in  process  of  time 
that  there  arose  a class  of  scholars  in  Japan  who  re- 
garded the  Confucian  classics  (named  after  Confucius, 
a Chinese  sage)  and  the  Chinese  philosophy  as  the 
height  of  all  human  wisdom,  the  treasury  of  precept 
and  principle  for  the  family,  the  guide  for  the  right 
conduct  of  affairs  of  state,  and  the  standard  of  literary 
taste  and  composition.  And  without  doubt  there  is  in 
the  Chinese  classics  much  excellent  teaching  touching 
filial  piety,  fidelity,  justice,  and  even  benevolence.  But 
the  cultivation  of  Chinese  literature  and  composition 
left  the  Japanese  language  and  literature  neglected  as 
unworthy  of  the  attention  of  scholars  and  accomplished 

*The  classics  are  the  four  books  (Great  Learning,  Doctrine 
of  the  Mean,  the  Analects,  Sayings  of  Mencius);  and  five  can- 
ons (Book  of  Changes,  of  Poetry.  History,  Rites,  and  Spring 
and  Autumn). 


THE  CHINESE  LEARNING. 


71 


persons.  Every  scholar  must  write  in  Chinese,  scrupu- 
lously affecting  Chinese  styles.  This  was  strange,  had 
not  precisely  the  same  thing  occurred  among  other  na- 
tions. Just  as  the  educated  few  in  Japan,  despising 
their  own  language,  proudly  affected  the  letters  and 
philosophy  of  China,  so  it  was  in  Rome,  where  Greek 
letters,  art,  and  manners  were  much  in  vogue,  in  pref- 
erence to  the  Roman,  which  were  simpler.  And  in  En- 
gland too  the  educated  classes  of  the  court,  gentry,  and 
clergy  once  came  near  discarding  their  vernacular  for 
Latin  and  Norman  French.  There  are  men  still  living 
who,  when  boys  at  school,  had  to  give  as  much  time  to 
writing  Latin  verse  as  to  their  mother  tongue.*  In 
Japan  the  bad  fashion  once  set  continued  to  be  slavish- 
ly followed  for  many  centuries  by  the  educated  few.  It 
must  be  said  to  the  credit  of  the  Buddhist  priests  that, 
with  all  their  faults,  they  promoted  the  Chinese  civili- 
zation among  the  Japanese.  As  in  Europe  the  clergy 
were  for  a long  time  the  chief  teachers  and  bookmak- 
ers, so  in  Japan  the  priests  of  the  foreign  religion  were 
leaders  in  spreading  Chinese  learning  and  arts.  One 
notable  exception  is  that  of  the  Sugawara  family,  not 
priests,  the  members  of  which  held  for  generations  the 
position  of  court  teachers.  It  is  said  that  several  of  the 
Emperors,  deeply  versed  in  Chinese  literature,  were  pa- 
trons of  letters  and  art  and  promoted  the  establishment 
of  schools  and  the  formation  of  libraries  in  their  capital. 
Three  of  them  were  so  skillful  in  writing  the  Chinese 
characters  as  to  earn  the  name  “the  three  penmen.” 
Indeed  the  skilled  penman  was  held  in  as  high  rank  as  the 
painter.  Penmanship  in  Japan  and  China,  not  being  the 


*The  writer  once  heard  the  Dean  of  Westminster  speak  of 
this  and  lament  it. 


72 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


simple  thing  of  writing  the  twenty-six  letters  of  the  al- 
phabet, but  requiring  a knowledge  of  thousands  of  com- 
plex characters,  was  regarded  as  a profession  and  a fine 
art.  Some  of  these  characters  are  simple  enough — for 
example,  mouth;  sun  or  day;  JLt,  mountain; 
Xs.,  man;  etc.  But  others  require  ten  or  twelve  dif- 
ferent strokes  and  dots — for  example,  gate  or  door; 

iron;  horse;  etc. 

III.  Influence  of  New  Religion  and  Learning 
at  Court. 

The  influence  of  the  Buddhist  creed  and  Chinese 
learning  was  nowhere  so  quick  and  powerful  as  at  the 
throne  and  court.  Scarcely  had  the  Empress  Suiko 
and  her  Regent,  Shotoku,  publicly  embraced  the  Bud- 
dhist religion  before  they  began  adopting  Chinese  mod- 
els of  government,  official  rank,  and  ceremony.  It  was 
in  her  reign  that  the  first  official  intercourse  took  place 
with  China.  The  salutation  was  as  follows:  “The 
sovereign  of  the  Empire  of  the  Rising  Sun  to  the  sover- 
eign of  the  Empire  of  the  Setting  Sun.” 

Being  not  only  a religious  reformer,  but  a wise  ruler 
as  well,  Shotoku  studied  the  government  and  modes  of 
court  procedure  of  China,  adapting  them  to  his  own 
country.  lie  compiled  a kind  of  code  of  laws  of  seven- 
teen articles  based  on  the  doctrines  of  Buddhism  and 
teachings  of  Confucianism.  This  was  the. first  written 
law  for  the  Japanese.  This  first  attempt  was  followed 
by  a more  extended  body  of  laws  about  the  middle  of 
the  seventh  century,  and  named  “Taikwa  Reforms,” 
but  was  not  completed  until  many  years  afterwards. 
These  reforms  touched  certain  matters  important  to  the 
government  and  to  the  people,  such  as: 

1.  Measures  relating  to  selling  and  holding  lands. 


LOCAL  GOVERNMENT. 


73 


Brought  up  in  democratic  America,  some  of  my  younger 
readers  may  be  surprised  to  learn  that  the  legal  right  to 
hold  land  as  private  property  was  not  recognized  in 
Japan  until  after  1868.  Yet  even  under  the  Taikwa 
reforms,  steps  were  taken  to  stop  the  nobles  and  high 
officials  from  grabbing  all  the  lands.  The  common 
people  could  not  own  land  at  all.  But  to  every  child 
six  years  old,  two-thirds  of  an  acre  was  allotted,  which 
however  reverted  to  the  state  for  redistribution.  This 
reminds  us  of  the  law  given  by  Moses  to  the  Israelites, 
the  period  of  redistribution  being  the  fiftieth  year  in- 
stead of  the  sixth.  Thus  all  the  land  was  regarded  as 
the  property  of  the  state  or  crown. 

2.  Measures  of  taxation.  The  taxes  were  of  three 
kinds:  so,  yo,  and  cho.  The  so  was  eight  sheaves  of 
rice  out  of  every  hundred,  the  estimated  crop  of  a half 
acre.  The  yo  was  ten  days  of  public  labor  by  every 
man  twenty-one  years  old,  but  might  be  paid  in  cloth 
instead.  The  cho  was  a tax  upon  silk,  fish,  and  other 
productions  got  out  in  large  quantities. 

3.  Reforms  relating  to  local  government. 

The  empire  was  divided  into  fifty-eight  provinces  and 
five  hundred  districts,  and  the  smallest  unit  for  local  ad- 
ministration was  the  space  occupied  by  five  houses.  The 
people  lived  for  the  most  part  in  towns  and  villages.  On 
the  principal  roads  from  the  capital  to  the  provinces  were 
relays  of  post  horses.  At  important  points  on  the  way 
were  guardhouses,  lookouts,  and  garrisons  to  arrest 
suspicious  persons  and  keep  order.  Curiously  enough, 
persons  traveling  in  the  interior  were  required  to  carry 
a hand  bell  and  a passport.  J ust  when  they  had  to  jin- 
gle the  bell  we  are  not  told;  of  course  the  passport 
had  to  be  shown  at  the  “road-doors”  along  the  way. 
At  first  the  appointments  to  office  in  the  provinces 


74 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


and  districts  were  to  be  upon  the  merit  of  the  person, 
according  to  the  civil  service  theory  in  China;  but  this 
plan  did  not  work  well,  and  the  custom  was  renewed  of 
holding  office  for  life,  with  a good  prospect  of  the  son’s 
holding  the  same  position.  As  a matter  of  fact,  office 
holding  was  generally  handed  down  from  father  to  son 
in  certain  ruling  families  in  each  town  or  village. 

4.  Administrative  organization  of  central  government. 
In  all  nations  there  has  been  a slow  growth  of  the  various 
offices  and  functions  in  governmental  affairs.  Away 
back  in  primitive  times,  in  the  days  of  Abraham,  for  ex- 
ample, it  was  the  patriarch  or  prince  of  the  tribe  who 
was  in  turn  the  judge,  priest,  and  prophet,  and  the  leader 
in  war.  In  process  of  time  these  different  offices  were 
intrusted  to  certain  persons,  and  generally  to  the  head 
of  the  same  family  in  successive  generations.  The 
first  to  be  thus  separated  were  men  for  priests  and 
prophets;  later,  men  for  judges;  latest  of  all,  the  gen- 
eral of  the  army.  With  us  even  now  the  President  of 
the  United  States  is  theoretically  commander  in  chief 
of  all  our  army  and  navy.  So  among  the  Japanese 
there  was  a slow  growth  of  differing  functions  and  de- 
partments in  the  government.  At  first  we  see  the  Mi- 
kado, or  king,  whose  throne  was  his  tent  or  hut,  whose 
capital  was  his  camp.  As  judge  he  heard  and  decided 
causes;  as  high  priest,  performed  the  ceremony  of  pu- 
rification in  behalf  of  his  people;  as  general,  he  led 
his  fighting  men  to  battle.  Upon  important  matters 
he  consulted  the  assembled  elders  and  head  men  as 
his  counsel  or  senate.  Later  there  appeared  with  the 
Mikado  a kind  of  Prime  Minister,  and  after  that  a Sho- 
gun or  general,  while  his  brother  or  some  prince  of  the 
blood  is  the  head  of  religious  matters,  a princess  like- 
wise becoming  the  priestess  at  the  national  shrine.  Still 


CHINESE  MODELS  AT  COURT. 


75 


later,  in  the  Empress  Suiko’s  reign,  besides  the  Prime 
Minister,  there  appear  two  more  high  officials,  the  min- 
ister of  the  left  and  the  minister  of  the  right;  later  still, 
the  minister  of  the  interior.  Along  with  these  high 
functionaries  eight  boards  were  added,  each  in  charge 
of  certain  duties  and  departments  of  government;  and 
each  board  was  again  divided  into  bureaus.  The  gov- 
ernment thus  became  thoroughly  bureaucratic,  as  in 
China.  The  Emperor  no  longer  has  personal  oversight 
and  direction  of  government  affairs. 

Besides  all  this,  six  official  ranks  were  created,  each 
rank  being  named  by  a word.  Thus,  first  rank,  virtue; 
second,  humanity;  etc.  Each  of  these  ranks  was  di- 
vided into  a higher  and  lower  order,  making  twelve  or- 
ders. Afterwards  the  number  of  distinctions  or  titles 
was  increased  to  nineteen.  Now  these  orders  or  dis- 
tinctions were  not  bestowed  upon  the  individual,  but 
rather  upon  heads  of  families,  and  so  handed  down 
to  their  sons.  This  whole  system,  attributed  to  Suiko’s 
Regent,  Shotoku,  an  admirer  of  Chinese  civilization, 
was  fashioned  after  the  Chinese  court  and  government, 
and  continued  without  much  change  until  1868. 

Before  touching  upon  the  fifth  feature  of  the  Taikwa 
reforms  we  would  merely  say  that  a third  code  of  laws, 
adopted  a little  later,  was  more  thoroughly  Chi- 
nese than  ever.  This  code  of  law  and  official  proce- 
dure, called  the  Taiho  Statutes,  was  based  upon  the  laws 
of  the  Tang  dynasty.  It  consists  of  two  parts.  The  first 
part  is  largely  taken  up  with  regulations  pertaining  to 
the  imperial  court  and  officialdom  generally,  such  as 
rank,  costumes,  ceremonies;  then  religion,  military  de- 
fense, buildings,  etc.  The  second  part  is  chiefly  a 
criminal  code,  and  under  the  criminal  code  the  penal- 
ties were  execution,  exile,  slavery,  beating  (stick),  and 


76 


japan:  country,  COURT,  people. 


scourging  (whipping).  In  the  trial  of  causes  the  dispu- 
tants were  sometimes  required  to  submit  to  the  ordeal 
of  plunging  their  hands  in  boiling  water  in  the  judge’s 
presence,  and  whoever  could  show  hands  unhurt  was 
accounted  guiltless.  The  person  accused  of  a crime 
might  be  examined  by  torture  to  make  him  confess  it, 
and  this  custom  continued  until  recent  years.  Some  of 
the  early  Christian  missionaries  of  the  Meiji  era  (1868) 
have  witnessed  examination  of  the  accused  by  torture, 
a cruel  custom  now  abolished. 

The  throne  and  court  of  Japan  had  taken  on  the 
ceremony  and  pomp  of  the  Chinese  at  the  beginning  of 
the  eighth  century  A.D.;  for  we  read  that  when  the 
Emperor  visited  a certain  palace  to  receive  the  New 
Year’s  congratulations  of  his  subjects,  the  princes  of 
the  blood,  the  ministers  of  state,  and  other  dignitaries, 
wore  for  the  first  time  duly  prescribed  official  uniforms, 
the  whole  ceremonial  being  conducted  with  the  great- 
est pomp  and  etiquette.  Thenceforth  the  rules  for 
court  ceremonies  and  gradations  of  official  rank  were 
unchangeably  fixed. 

5.  TYe  may  now  return  to  consider  the  rules  relating 
to  the  census,  or  families  and  classes.  These  rules 
had  to  do  chiefly  with  the  dividing  of  the  people  into 
classes  and  ranks  according  to  family  descent,  official 
position,  and  the  like.  Some  confusion  had  crept  in. 
The  distinction  between  aristocratic  families  and  the 
inferior  classes  was  becoming  less  clear.  It  was  now 
intended  to  distinguish  the  various  families,  their  chief, 
branches  and  offshoots.  All  the  people  had  to  be  clas- 
sified into  one  of  three  classes  : (1)  those  descended  from 
the  deities;  (2)  those  descended  from  the  Emperor;  and 
(3)  those  of  foreign  descent.  The  basis  of  this  classifi- 
cation was  the  respect  paid  to  noble  families. 


ORIGIN  OF  SOCIAL  CLASSES  AND  NAMES. 


77 


And  thus  we  are  brought  face  to  face- with  a most 
interesting  question,  and  one  beset  with  some  difficulty 
— namely,  the  origin  of  family  names  and  social  classes. 
This  is  a question  of  interest  to  the  student  of  civiliza- 
tion in  general,  and  the  reader  of  Japanese  history  in 
particular.  It  gives  us  the  key  with  which  to  unlock 
many  doors  of  Japanese  thought  and  social  institutions, 
explains  many  eventful  turns  in  the  history  of  this  inter- 
esting people,  and  is  probably  somewhat  unique  in  the 
development  of  their  civilization. 

To  begin  with,  as  previously  indicated,  the  primitive 
Japanese,  like  all  primitive  peoples,  lived  under  a sort 
of  patriarchal  system,  the  father  of  the  tribe  being  its 
ruler  even  when  it  had  sub-families  in  it  and  num- 
bered thousands  of  people.  Under  such  a system  fam- 
ily names,  as  we  now  know  the  family,  were  not  so  im- 
portant. Personal  names  were  of  course  given,  or,  as 
was  the  case  among  the  Japanese,  the  children  were 
numbered  in  the  order  of  their  birth,  first  son,  second 
child,  etc. 

In  the  first  stage  of  human  civilization  it  is  probable 
that  all  of  the  members  of  the  tribal  family  did  all 
kinds  of  work;  for  example,  all  are  warriors,  all  hunt- 
ers, fishermen,  builders,  according  to  the  season  or 
need.  But  when  the  Japanese  came  across  from  the 
continent  into  the  islands  now  named  Japan,  though 
still  patriarchal,  they  were  already  entering  upon  the 
second  stage  of  civilization — that  is,  the  Mikado  began 
to  make  a distribution  of  authority  and  of  labor  among 
his  people.  With  these  facts  in  mind  we  are  prepared  to 
understand  how  family  names  and  social  classes  took 
their  origin,  from  one  of  three  things,  at  least: 

1.  From  the  holding  of  office.  From  early  times 
governmental  affairs  were  conducted  by  hereditary  au- 


78 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


thority,  the  original  holder  of  an  office  handing  it  down 
to  his  son  for  successive  generations.  It  thus  resulted 
that  family  names  were  derived  from  official  titles. 
For  example,  the  official  title  for  persons  conducting 
religious  duties  and  ceremonies  was  Nakatomi  (literally, 
intercessors)  or  Imbe,  and  so  there  came  to  be  a family 
of  N akatomis  and  of  Imbes.  In  the  same  way  a family  of 
Otomos  arose,  being  at  first  the  military  title  of  those 
commanding  troops  and  guards.  Of  course  at  the  first 
the  men  selected  for  these  posts  were  near  kinsmen  of 
the  Mikado,  a son  or  brother.  And  this  shows  us  how 
a circle  of  court  or  noble  families  arose  related  by  blood 
to  the  sovereign.  Again,  among  the  common  people 
some  were  ordered  to  perforin  certain  kinds  of  work  for 
the  ruler,  and  this  was  from  generation  to  generation 
their  work.  Each  class  of  workers  was  under  the  con- 
trol of  a head  man,  who  generally  belonged  to  some 
branch  of  the  ruler’s  family  and  received  the  official 
title  of  Omi,  Muraji,  and  soon;  and  these  positions,  be- 
ing hereditary,  resulted  in  forming  a number  of  Omi 
and  Muraji  families  of  the  ruling  class.  Now  while 
this  process  of  forming  the  ruling  classes  and  families 
from  official  position  and  title  was  going  on,  at  the  oth- 
er end  of  the  line  there  was 

2.  The  origin  of  family  names  by  occupation.  Only 
a few  examples  of  the  many  must  suffice.  The  makers 
of  jewels  from  jade  and  other  stones  were  called  Ta- 
matsukuri,  and  this  became  finally  their  family  or  tribe 
name.  Cormorant  keepers — i.  e. , fishermen — took  the 
family  name  Kabane;  rice  tillers  were  called  Tade; 
road  keepers  Chimori;  etc. — which  afterwards  became 
common  family  or  tribal  names.  Not  only  by  custom 
and  convenience  did  the  father  and  his  descendants  take 
the  name  of  their  occupation  as  their  family  or  clan 


RISE  OF  RULING  FAMILIES. 


79 


name,  but  also  by  direct  permission  of  the  Mikado  fam- 
ilies or  clans  originated  in  the  same  fashion.  F or  in- 
stance, we  read  in  the  time  of  a certain  ruler  that  the 
stone- coffin  makers  and  earthenware  masters  were  es- 
tablished as  separate  clans  or  tribes,  each  bearing  these 
names.  And  so  other  tribal  families  bearing  the  name 
of  Fishers,  Butlers,  Keepers,  Bankers,  were  formed. 

3.  And  yet  another  source  of  family  names  was  some 
signal  event , exploit , or  important  place.  For  instance, 
the  tachibana  (orange)  was  brought  over  from  Korea, 
and  the'  man  who  brought  the  first  one  to  the  Mikado, 
or  who  first  grew  it  in  Japanese  soil,  was  nonored  with 
the  name  of  Tachibana  as  a title  of  nobility;  cf. 
House  of  Orange  in  English  history. 

To  this  category  belongs  also  a large  number  of 
territorial  lords  who  took  the  name  of  the  province  or 
conquered  district  to  which  they  had  been  appointed 
governors,  as  their  house  or  family  name.  It  explains 
itself  when  in  the  same  paragraph  in  the  Ko-ji-ki  it  is 
said  that  4 4 seventy  kings  and  queens  were  all  granted 
rulerships  in  the  various  lands,”  and  that  4 4 savage 
deities  and  unsubmissive  peoples  were  -subdued  in  the 
East  and  West.”  Each  one  of  these  territorial  lords, 
going  down  from  the  capital  with  a few  military  retain- 
ers, took  control  of  his  assigned  district,  and  so  became 
one  of  the  ruling  class;  the  conquered  tribe  meanwhile 
becoming  the  serfs  of  his  clan.  Those  territorial  lords 
were  always  ready  to  grab  more  lands,  so  as  to  increase 
the  number  and  strength  of  their  clans.  As  a part  of 
the  social  system  slavery  existed.  The  slave  class  was 
increased  from  time  to  time  by  the  degradation  of  aris- 
tocrats as  a punishment,  or  by  the  employment  of  pris- 
oners of  war  in  servile  labor.  The  common  people  were 
regarded  as  the  property  of  the  aristocrats,  being  bought 


80 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


and  sold  at  the  will  of  the  latter.  Marriage  between 
the  ruling  classes  and  the  lower  did  not  take  place. 
From  the  foregoing  facts  we  see  how  the  ruling  families 
and  upper  classes  were  formed,  both  those  at  the  capi- 
tal and  the  territorial  lords  in  the  provinces;  and  how 
under  them  the  serfs  and  common  people  gradually  be- 
came the  inferior  part  of  the  clan. 

Kow  it  naturally  came  to  pass  that  certain  of  the 
noble  or  aristocratic  families  became  more  influential 
with  the  throne  than  others,  and  either  on  account  of 
ability  and  wisdom,  or  by  the  favoritism  of  the  sover- 
eign, rose  to  higher  position  at  court.  It  has  always 
been  so.  Among  the  first  to  rise  into  prominence  after 
the  introduction  of  Buddhism  was  the  Tachibana  fami- 
ly (Orange  family),  previously  mentioned.  The  Suga- 
wara  house  was  also  famous  at  court  for  their  learning, 
this  being  their  family  profession.  They  were  the  in- 
structors of  princes  of  the  blood.  The  most  conspicu 
ous  noblemen  of  the  Sugawara  house  was  Michizane, 
a man  of  lofty  character  and  brilliant  in  Chinese  learn- 
ing. He  rose  to  the  position  of  Minister  of  the  Inte- 
rior, and  besides  was  the  honest  counselor  of  the  young 
Emperor  whom  he  had  taught  as  a boy  prince.  But 
another  noble  family,  the  Fujiwaras,  had  for  a long 
time  been  more  noted,  honored,  and  powerful  than  any 
other,  nor  did  they  like  to  see  Michizane  standing  so 
near  to  the  Emperor  and  wielding  so  much  influence 
with  him;  therefore  they  had  him  sent  into  honorable 
banishment  as  a viceroy  in  Kiushiu.  There  he  died 
about  900  A.D.  After  his  death  a great  change  of 
opinion  took  place,  and  finally  he  was  canonized  with 
the  name  of  Ten  jin  (heavenly  man),  and  in  his  honor  the 
25th  of  every  month  was  a holiday  in  all  schools,  and 
the  25th  of  June  was  his  annual  festival.  Boys  learn- 


POWERFUL  FUJIWARA  FAMILY. 


81 


ing  to  write  difficult  Chinese  characters,  then  so  much 
prized,  had  to  pray  to  Ten  jin  for  help.  As  is  frequent- 
ly the  case  in  history,  the  powerful  Fujiwaras  were 
ready  to  garnish  his  tomb  since  he  was  dead  and  out  of 
their  way.  Speaking  of  the  Fujiwaras,  there  are  few 
examples  in  history  of  a noble  family  enjoying  such  ex- 
traordinary honor  and  power  in  the  affairs  of  royalty 
and  of  state.  According  to  legend,  the  ancestor  of  this 
noble  house  came  down  with  Jimmu’s  grandfather  from 
the  heavenly  plains.  Therefore  it  ranks  next  to  the 
imperial  house  itself  as  the  oldest  and  most  honora- 
ble family  in  the  whole  empire.  Besides,  there  sprang 
out  of  this  family  men  of  marked  ability  in  controlling 
men  and  directing  affairs.  Then  again  several  circum- 
stances helped  their  ambitions  and  fortunes.  Owing  to 
the  early  death  of  one  of  the  Emperors,  the  throne  was 
left  to  a mere  child,  which  made  a Regent  necessary. 
Now  the  Prime  Minister  was  already  a Fujiwara,  and 
the  result  was  that  both  the  Prime  Minister  and  Regent 
were  of  this  proud  family.  Having  once  gotten  affairs 
under  their  hands,  they  were  loath  to  give  back  the 
reins  when  the  child  became  a man. 

Now  and  then  a strong  young  Emperor  was  able  to 
assert  his  authority  and  to  live  out  his  days  upon  the 
throne;  but  the  most  of  them,  becoming  restless  under 
the  restraints  imposed  upon  them  after  reaching  man- 
hood, soon  resigned  and  retired  as  priests  or  monks  with 
shaven  head  to  a monastery.  Thus  for  a considerable 
period  Japan  was  afflicted  with  a line  of  “ child  rulers,” 
and  “ex-Emperors.”  This  was  just  what  the  ambitious 
and  powerful  Fujiwaras  liked.  Another  thing  they  liked 
was  the  choosing  of  the  queen  from  among  their  daugh- 
ters. Thus  it  came  to  pass  that  the  Prime  Minister 
or  Regent  was  grandfather  of  the  boy  Emperor  and  had 
6 ‘ 


82 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


charge  of  his  education,  and  continued  to  exercise  the 
strongest  influence  over  him  after  he  was  elevated  to 
the  throne.  Again  (888  A.D.),  another  high  oflice  was 
created,  the  oflice  of  Kwambaku,  and  of  course  it  was 
filled  by  a member  of  this  powerful  family.  Kwamba- 
ku means  literally  “to  bolt  the  door.”  In  early  times 
anybody  had  access  to  the  throne  or  could  send  up 
memorials  to  the  sovereign  concerning  grievances  and 
evils  touching  the  welfare  of  the  country.  This  new  of- 
fice was  created  ostensibly  to  prevent  his  imperial  maj- 
esty from  being  annoyed  by  too  many  persons  seeking 
audience.  But  the  Kwambaku  soon  learned  how  to 
“bolt  the  Hoot”  against  all  persons  whom  he  did  not  wish 
to  see  coming  into  communication  with  the  Emperor. 
It  soon  came  to  pass,  therefore,  that  the  Emperor  could 
see  only  such  persons  and  receive  such  information  as 
this  new  doorkeeper  chose  to  admit. 

Shortly  after  this,  Daigo  came  to  the  throne  and  ruled 
for  the  long  period  of  thirty  years.  By  reason  of  his  con- 
cern for  the  welfare  of  the  people,  his  reign  is  regarded 
in  Japanese  history  as  the  golden  age.  The  arts  flour- 
ished, and  the  country  was  in  comparative  peace.  But 
under  the  affluence  and  arts  at  the  court  and  capital,  so- 
cial corruption  was  lurking.  The  history  of  nations  tells 
how  prosperity  is  often  followed  by  decline.  These 
young  Japanese  Emperors  became  more  addicted  to  the 
pleasures  and  flatteries  of  their  intriguing  wives  and  con- 
cubines than  to  the  affairs  of  State.  Even  had  they  a de- 
sire to  look  after  the  affairs  of  the  empire,  the  door  of 
communication  from  the  country  to  the  throne  was 
barred.  Thenceforth  for  a hundred  and  fifty  years  the 
administration  of  the  government  was  in  the  hands  of 
the  Fujiwara  family.  But  to  the  ancient  and  powerful 
Fujiwaras  a change  came — even  their  downfall. 


CHAPTER  111. 


RISE  OF  MILITARY  NOBLES  WITH  THEIR  CLANS— 
OVERTHROW  OF  THE  COURT  NOBLES— WAR  OF 
WHITE  AND  RED  ROSES. 

I.  Foundations  of  Feudalism  Laid. 

From  early  times  the  Yamato- Japanese,  like  the  an- 
cient Romans,  were  surrounded  by  hostile  tribes  more 
or  less  barbarous,  tribes  that  must  be  conquered.  And 
even  after  the  stage  was  reached  properly  called  em- 
pire, and  Japan  had  apparently  pacified  the  surrounding 
regions,  either  by  whipping  them  into  subjection  or 
by  blending  the  policy  of  marriage  alliance  with  that 
of  bow  and  spear,  there  was  ever  and  anon  fresh  out- 
breaks. In  Kiushiu  and  Shikoku,  on  the  west  coasts, 
and  in  the  Kwanto  region  eastward  there  were  frequent 
rebellions.  In  the  remote  provinces,  especially  on  the 
northern  frontiers  where  the  savages  and  still  uncon- 
quered Ainus  dwelt,  garrisons  had  to  be  stationed. 
Indeed,  in  all  the  provinces  bands  of  troops  had  to  be 
kept.  In  Kioto,  now  a rich  Oriental  capital,  the  six 
guards,  commanded  by  six  generals,  were  maintained  as 
a kind  of  imperial  guard.  Then  there  was  Korea,  that 
had  occasionally  to  be  looked  after  by  sending  over 
troops  to  enforce  the  tribute,  or  give  protection  against 
China.  All  this  campaigning,  fighting,  and  garrison- 
ing, kept  up  at  intervals  for  one  thousand  years,  could 
naturally  produce  but  one  result:  a strong  warlike 
spirit.  Like  the  Romans,  the  Japanese  are  a nation  of 
fighters. 

As  previously  observed,  the  Tachibanas,  Suguwaras, 

(83) 


84 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


Fujiwaras,  and  other  noble  families  had  stood  in  great 
power  at  the  capital,  especially  the  Fujiwaras,  who  for 
a long  time  had  been  the  head  of  everything,  including 
military  affairs  as  well.  And  so  when  the  Emperors, 
no  longer  following  the  example  of  earlier  rulers, 
ceased  to  lead  their  armies  out  to  battle,  it  fell  upon 
some  Fujiwara  nobles  to  take  the  field  and  suppress 
the  rebellion.  But  after  a while  they  also  became 
too  fond  of  their  pleasures  or  their  literature  at  the 
capital  to  enjoy  the  rough  experiences  of  life  and 
warfare  in  the  distant  provinces  or  military  districts. 
Hence,  though  still  receiving  appointments  as  provin- 
cial governors,  they  remained  at  the  capital  and  sent 
out  to  rule  in  their  name  some  of  the  Samurai  (military 
gentry),  or  some  young  officer  or  noble  selected  from 
other  great  families.  The  natural  result  of  this  policy 
was  the  rise  of  a class  of  military  nobles,  with  their 
fighting  clans,  outside  of  the  Fujiwara  clan.  This  was 
a great  mistake.  It  encouraged  the  growth  of  two 
powerful  military  clans  led  by  military  nobles , des- 
tined to  become  rivals  of  the  court  nobles.  The  two 
powerful  military  families  or  clans  were  the  Taira  and 
the  Minamoto.  They  played  a leading  part  up’on  the 
stage  of  national  affairs  of  this  period,  and  their  strug- 
gles in  overthrowing  the  Fujiwaras,  and  then  each 
other,  make  celebrated  chapters  in  Japanese  history. 

Just  a word  as  to  the  origin  of  these  two  clans.  These 
also  had  royal  blood  in  their  veins,  for  they  claim  de- 
scent in  a branch  line  from  former  Emperors.  The 
Minamoto  clan  was  descended  from  Emperor  Seiwa,  and 
from  this  clan  the  celebrated  warrior  Yoritomo  sprang. 
The  ancestor  of  the  Taira  clan  was  descended  from 
Emperor  Kwammu,  and  gave  to  Japanese  history  the 
great  Kiyomori.  The  heads  of  these  two  clans,  though 


RISE  OF  MILITARY  NOBLES. 


85 


not  counted  now  as  members  of  the  imperial  family, 
nevertheless  because  of  their  royal  descent  were  in  many 
cases  favored  with  positions  in  the  central  government 
or  with  posts  as  provincial  governors.  According  to 
the  fashion  of  the  times,  they  acquired  as  provincial 
governors  rule  over  wide  territory,  and  gathered  around 
themselves  large  bands  of  Samurai  as  military  retainers. 
Hitherto  the  Samurai  had  been  compelled  by  custom  to 
attach  themselves  to  the  Fujiwara  clan,  but  thenceforth 
they  began  to  follow  the  Tairas  or  Minamotos.  That 
part  of  the  Taikwa  reforms  already  mentioned,  touch- 
ing the  unlawful  getting  of  territory  by  the  territorial 
governors,  failed  in  the  end,  like  the  rest.  Afterwards, 
as  the  imperial  house  declined  in  prestige  and  author- 
ity, the  practice  of  grabbing  and  holding  possession  of 
large  districts,  nothwithstanding  the  Emperor’s  sover- 
eign right,  went  on  worse  and  worse.  Smaller  terri- 
torial nobles  and  lords  wishing  to  remove  to  Kioto,  the 
capital  of  fashion  and  pleasure,  transferred  their  es- 
tates to  the  great  nobles,  who  gradually  widened  their 
landed  possessions.  These  large  provincial  landlords 
were  called  Dciimyos  (great  men)  and  had  their  own 
military  retainers,  the  Samurai,  while  the  common  peo- 
ple now  practically  tilled  their  lands  in  serfdom. 

We  need  not  be  told  that  the  rising  military  chiefs  of 
the  Tairas  and  Minamotos,  following  the  example  so  long 
set  by  the  court  nobles  and  provincial  governors,  began 
likewise  to  extend  their  rule  and  possessions  over  large 
districts.  In  fact,  Kiyomori,  the  famous  leader  of  the 
Taira  clan,  before  striking  his  final  blow  for  supremacy 
had  gotten  sway  over  thirty  provinces.  The  Taira 
chiefs  established  themselves  for  the  most  part  in  Cen- 
tral and  Southwest  Japan;  while  the  Minamotos,  under 
Yoritomo  and  his  brothers,  held  their  domains  in 


86 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


the  Kwanto,  and  other  eastern  and  northern  prov- 
inces. Their  territory  being  separated  in  this  way, 
there  was  for  a while  no  conflict;  but  as  the  day  of 
struggle  for  supremacy  between  these  two  clans  ap- 
proached, as  meanwhile  the  power  of  the  imperial  house 
declined,  and  the  Fuji^varas  became  weak  from  luxury 
and  social  corruptions,  the  times  of  lawlessness,  dan- 
ger, and  confusion  came  on  apace.  In  the  first  place, 
those  intriguing  ex-Emperors  wielded  more  power  be- 
hind the  screens  than  the  reigning  Emperor;  the  high 
police  court  at  Kioto  and  the  six  imperial  guards  were 
no  longer  able  to  punish  offenders  or  prosecute  unjust 
officials;  the  provinces  were  being  scurried  and  pillaged 
by  bands  of  marauders;  the  seacoasts,  south  and  west, 
were  infested  by  pirates,  some  of  them  Japanese  and 
some  of  them  Koreans;  and  then,  worst  of  all,  the  reign- 
ing Emperors  were  kept  in  ignorance  of  the  real  condi- 
tion ; and,  to  add  still  further  to  the  troubles,  the  priests 
and  lord  high  abbots,  with  their  castle  temples  and 
retinues  of  armed  soldiers,  began  to  take  a part  in  gov- 
ernment intrigues.  All  of  this  was  but  the  lowering  of 
the  storm  soon  to  burst  upon  the  country.  The  fore- 
warning of  dreadful  civil  wars  came  in  the  year  939 
A.D.,  when  simultaneously  east  and  west  the  stand- 
ards of  insurrection  were  raised,  both  directed  against 
the  throne.  They  were  both  quickly  quelled  by  play- 
ing one  military  clan  against  the  other,  but  for  a while 
they  threatened  to  shake  the  whole  empire.  In  the  fol- 
lowing century  there  were  three  rebellions  in  the  east- 
ern and  northern  provinces,  the  second  one  being 
known  as  the  “Nine  Years’  War,”  the  third  the  “Three 
Years’  War.”  These  were  quelled  by  the  Minamotos, 
and  thenceforward  that  clan  held  the  power  among  the 
military  chiefs  and  Daimyos  of  the  eastern  provinces. 


IMPENDING  STORMS. 


87 


The  waves  of  the  storm  beat  heavily  upon  the  throne 
and  empire,  when,  in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  a 
battle  broke  forth  right  in  the  capital,  as  a result  of  court 
intrigues  between  the  Emperor  and  an  ex-Emperor;  and 
some  military  nobles,  with  their  troops,  were  on  one 
side,  and  others,  with  their  followers,  on  the  other  side. 
This  battle  at  the  city  gate  is  known  as  the  ‘ £ Hogen  in- 
surrection.” But  the  Fujiwaras  managed  still  to  keep 
in  power.  Their  downfall  was  not  yet.  Quickly  came, 
however,  another,  the  “Heiji  insurrection.”  Though  a 
revolution  of  short  duration,  it  was  filled  with  momentous 
events  and  results:  such  as  the  seizure  of  the  Emperor  by 
the  Minamotos;  the  overthrow  of  the  Fujiwaras  at  last, 
and  death  of  their  leader;  the  utter  rout  of  the  Mina- 
motos,  and  death  of  the  great  leader  Yoshitomo;  and 
the  possession  of  the  capital  by  the  Tairas,  with  Kiyo- 
mori  at  their  head.  Supreme  power  was  now  in  the 
hands  of  the  Tairas,  and  their  able  chief,  Kiyomori,  got 
himself  appointed  Prime  Minister,  the  first  time  that  a 
military  noble  had  ever  been  elevated  to  such  a position. 
He  had  now  reached  the  zenith,  for  he  saw  his  sister  the 
wife  of  one  Emperor,  and  afterwards  his  daughter  the 
wife  of  another,  and  his  sons  and  followers  appointed 
to  all  the  high  offices  in  the  capital.  He  even  saw  his 
own  grandchild,  Antoku,  on  the  throne,  so  that  he  now 
stood  in  the  same  relation  to  the  imperial  house  as  that 
previously  sustained  by  the  proud  Fuj  iwaras.  Besides  all 
this  power  and  patronage  at  court,  he  held  the  military 
power  of  the  whole  empire  in  his  hands,  so  that,  going 
beyond  even  the  proud  Fujiwaras,  he  banished  an  ex- 
Emperor  to  Sanuki  Province,  where  he  is  said  to  have 
died  of  starvation,  and  kept  another  ex-Emperor  im- 
prisoned in  his  newly  built  palace  at  Fukuhara. 

And  yet,  notwithstanding  this  transcendent  power  and 


88 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


glory,  Kiyomori’s  career  and  that  of  his  clan  were  short- 
lived. Their  downfall  came  quickly.  Though  the  rival 
clan,  the  Minamotos,  seemed  to  be  utterly  broken,  and 
their  great  leader,  Yoshitomo,  slain,  two  of  his  children 
were  saved  from  the  sword  of  the  Tairas:  the  one  named 
Yoritomo,  thirteen  years  old,  the  other  a half-brother, 
named  Yoshitsune,  an  infant  at  his  mother’s  breast. 
These  two  boys  were  destined  to  regain  the  lost  for- 
tunes of  their  clan  in  a desperate  civil  war  with  the 
Tairas.  As  the  banner  of  the  Minamotos  was  white, 
and  that  of  the  Tairas  red,  we  will  call  this  war  “The 
War  of  the  Red  and  White  Banners.”  Indeed  it  is  the 
war  of  the  Red  and  White  Roses  of  English  history  re- 
peated in  Japan. 

The  child  Yoshitsune,  placed  in  a monastery  to  become 
a monk,  was  so  ruddy  and  fiery  that  the  monks,  not  able 
to  manage  him,  named  him  the  “Young  Ox.”  Discon- 
tented there,  he  made  his  escape  to  the  far  north,  and 
became  a Samurai  to  the  Daimyo  of  Mutsu,  and  in  that 
rough  and  barbarous  region  greAV  to  be  a soldier  of  great 
skill  and  courage.  Yoritomo,  his  brother,  was  sent  into 
exile  in  Idzu  Province,  to  be  kept  under  the  eye  of  two 
Taira  officers.  The  farmers,  seeing  him  as  he  passed 
along  the  road  from  Kioto  to  Idzu,  compared  him  to  a 
young  tiger;  but  as  he  grew  up  he  formed  the  habit  of 
politeness,  courage,  and  the  constant  repression  of  his 
feelings.  Though  reared  in  captivity,  as  it  were,  when 
he  became  a man  he  married  the  beautiful  daughter  of 
one  of  the  officers  who  had  him  in  charge,  Hojo  Toki- 
masu,  to  whom  he  made  known  his  purpose  to  avenge 
his  father’s  death,  raise  again  the  fallen  banner  of  his 
clan,  and  free  the  country  from  Taira  rule.  The  young 
tiger  felt  that  it  was  time  to  go  forth  from  his  lair.  At 
first  it  seemed  a lost  hope,  for  he  was  driven  from  the 


RISING  OF  MINS  AGAINST  TAIRAS. 


83 


Hakone  Mountains,  where  he  had  tried  to  start  the 
movement.  But  not  discouraged,  he  afterwards  took  the 
leadership  of  a small  army  at  a country  village,  named 
Kamakura,  which  afterwards  became  his  capital.  Here 
he  fixed  his  headquarters  and  began  preparing  for  war. 
This  place,  situated  in  a valley  surrounded  by  hills  on 
all  sides  except  where  it  looked  out  upon  the  sea,  close 
by,  was  well  chosen.  It  was  connected  by  a legend  wfith 
his  grandfather,  who  built  there  a shrine  to  Hachiman, 
god  of  war.  From  its  inclosing  hills  the  majestic  Fuji 
Mountain,  so  sacred  to  every  Japanese,  loomed  into  full 
view  not  more  than  ten  miles  ofi.  It  was  easily  de- 
fended, because  just  south  of  it  was  Hakone  Pass,  be- 
tween the  mountain  and  the  sea,  which  made  the  pass- 
ing of  the  enemy’s  forces  from  Kioto  a difficult  thing. 

As  the  days  went  by,  his  little  army  kept  increasing 
by  the  coming  of  Minamoto  chiefs,  with  their  armed 
bands,  from  different  provinces  east  and  north.  Mean-* 
while  Kiyomori,  aware  of  this  uprising,  sent  an  army 
toward  Kamakura.  The  two  armies  met  on  the  banks 
of  the  Fuji  River,  but  did  not  join  battle.  The  Tai- 
ra forces  withdrew  in  the  night.  Yoritomo,  strength- 
ened by  the  coming  of  his  brother  with  an  army 
from  the  north,  and  another  from  the  Shinano  high- 
lands led  by  his  cousin,  was  able  to  take  the  aggressive. 
About  this  time  the  able  but  cruel  Kiyomori  fell  ill,  and 
shortly  died.  His  sore  regret  was  that  Yoritomo’s  head 
had  not  been  brought.  His  dying  words  were:  “Do 
not  propitiate  Buddha  on  my  behalf,  nor  chant  the  sa- 
cred liturgies.  Only  do  this:  cut  off  Yoritomo’s  head, 
and  place  it  before  my  tomb.”  But  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor, Munemori,  could  not  fulfill  his  father’s  dying 
command;  the  head  was  never  brought.  On  the  con- 
trary, shortly  after  this  the  first  heavy  battle  was  fought, 


90 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


and  was  a total  defeat  to  tlie  Taira  army.  When  this 
news  was  brought  to  the  capital,  Munemori  fled  with  all 
his  family  into  Shikoku,  taking  the  young  Emperor 
Antoku  and  the  imperial  insignia — the  sword,  mirror, 
and  precious  stone. 

The  victorious  Minamotos  now  marched  on  the  capi- 
tal, and  their  arrival  was  greeted  as  a deliverance  by 
two  ex-Emperors  left  there.  The  Emperor  Antoku,  now 
a fleeing  child,  is  straightway  dethroned,  and  in  his 
stead  Go-toba  is  made  Emperor.  They  tarried  not  in 
the  capital,  however,  but  hastened  in  pursuit  of  the  flee- 
ing Tairas.  En  route  they  razed  to  the  ground  Kiyomo- 
ri’s  luxuriant  palace  built  at  Fukuhara,  near  where  now 
sits  the  modern  and  flourishing  seaport  city  of  Kobe. 
Rushing  on  to  Sanuki  Province,  in  Shikoku  island,  they 
again  defeated  the  Tairas  and  burned  their  castle,  but 
did  not  capture  either  the  Taira  chief  or  the  child  Em- 
peror. With  barely  time  to  escape,  and  with  the  Child 
Emperor  in  the  arms  of  his  grandmother,  the  Tairas 
sailed  westward  for  Kiushiu. 

The  Taira  clan  had  been  strong  in  those  central  and 
southwestern  regions,  and  so  at  a place  near  the  Shimo- 
noseki  Straits  of  the  Inland  Sea  the  Tairas  rallied  for  a 
desperate  struggle.  They  had  a fleet  of  five  hundred 
war  junks,  into  which  were  crowded  women  and  chil- 
dren as  well  as  soldiers.  Their  banner  was  red.  The 
Minamotos  had  seven  hundred  j unks,  armed  and  equipped 
with  fighting  men  only,  and  floating  to  the  breeze  above 
them  was  their  white  banner.  The  odds  were  greatly 
in  favor  of  the  Minamotos,  but  both  sides  fought  to  win 
or  die.  The  Tairas  fought  in  desperation,  knowing  this 
to  be  their  last  hope,  and  that  their  capture  meant 
death.  They  had  also  the  imperial  insignia,  and  the 
person  of  the  ruling  sovereign  was  in  their  keeping. 


THE  TAIRAS  OVERTHROWN. 


91 


Upon  the  other  side,  the  Minamotos  were  resolved  to 
avenge  their  former  downfall  and  cruel  treatment  at 
the  hands  of  their  once-powerful  enemies.  There,  in 
1185  A.D.,  the  greatest  naval  battle  in  Japanese  annals 
took  place.  The  sea  was  red  with  blood.  The  Tairas 
were  defeated,  destroyed.  The  grandmother,  with 
the  Emperor  in  her  arms,  seeing  that  all  was  lost, 
plunged  into  the  sea,  and  both  perished.  Many  com- 
mitted suicide  at  the  last  moment.  A few  escaped  to 
the  land,  and  hid  away  in  the  hills.  Munemori  and  one 
son  were  captured,  brought  away  to  appear  before  Yo- 
ritomo  at  Kamakura,  and  afterwards  beheaded.  The 
extermination  which  the  Tairas  once  intended  for  the 
Minamotos  was  mercilessly  inflicted  upon  themselves. 
Neither  age  nor  sex  saved  any  Taira  from  death  if  once 
caught.  It  was  a terrible  downfall. 

Yoshitsune,  the  victorious  general,  then  notified  his 
brother  at  Kamakura  of  what  had  been  done,  expecting 
to  march  at  once  to  him  and  lay  the  trophies  of  victory 
at  his  feet.  But  Yoritomo,  with  all  his  ability  as  lead- 
er and  organizer,  could  not  stand  the  popularity  of  his 
brother,  gained  by  his  victory  over  the  Tairas,  and  so 
made  a shameful  plot  against  his  life.  This  dark  deed  has 
been  palliated  by  the  statement  that  Yoritomo  was  led 
by  false  charges  to  believe  that  Yoshitsune  was  really 
intriguing  against  him  and  intended  to  make  himself 
the  head  of  the  empire. 

After  laying  out  and  building  his  capital  at  Kama- 
kura and  organizing  his  government  Yoritomo  proceeded 
in  great  state  and  arms  to  Kioto,  where  he  presented 
himself  to  the  Emperor.  All  were  astonished  at  the 
splendor  of  his  equipage.  A brilliant  reception  was 
given  him,  and  festivals  were  celebrated  for  a month. 
Then  returning  to  his  capital,  about  the  year  1192  A.D., 


92 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


he  was  honored  with  the  highest  military  dignity,  that 
of  Sei-i-tai- Shogun,  which  became  henceforth  the  he- 
reditary title  of  the  Minamoto  Shoguns.  This  long 
title  means  literally  the  “Eastern  Barbarian  Squelcher.” 
The  court  records  and  treasury  department  were  trans- 
ferred from  Kioto  to  Kamakura,  and  though  the  Em- 
peror was  still  recognized  in  a way  as  monarch  and  the 
administration  is  carried  on  in  his  name,  yet  as  a mat- 
ter of  fact  Yoritomo  and  his  successors  hold  the  reigns 
of  government  under  the  title  of  Shogun.  The  court 
nobles  have  been  overthrown,  and  the  military  nobles 
now  rule  the  country.  Very  soon  the  Emperors,  the 
legal  sovereigns,  become  mere  shadows.  These  are  the 
results  of  the  War  of  the  Red  and  White  Banners. 

II.  General  Progress  of  Civilization  in  This 
Period. 

The  Influence  of  Buddhism. — It  is  true  of  Buddhism, 
as  of  Romish  Jesuitism,  that  it  first  brings  some  bless- 
ing and  then  much  evil.  Undoubtedly  the  Japanese 
got  some  good  moral  teachings  from  the  Buddhist 
priests.  Their  religious  feelings  were  appealed  to;  they 
were  made  to  feel  that  this  world  is  full  of  evil  and 
vanity,  and  to  long  for  deliverance.  In  a measure  their 
religious  hopes  and  fears  were  met  by  lurid  descriptions 
of  paradise  and  hell.  They  were  taught  to  pray,  to  fast, 
to  do  penance,  and  deny  the  body  in  order  to  heap  up 
merit  for  the  soul  in  the  next  birth.  With  much  mix- 
ture of  falsehood,  there  was  something  to  stimulate 
conscience  and  give  an  outlook  toward  the  future  life. 
Schools  were  encouraged,  especially  among  the  ruling 
classes,  and  of  course  their  novices  in  training  for  the 
priesthood  received  some  instruction.  For  object  les- 
sons in  better  styles  of  buildings  than  the  Japanese  ever 


CIVILIZATION  OF  THE  PERIOD. 


93 


had,  the  Buddhist  temple  served  a good  purpose,  and 
the  Buddhist  artists  brought  from  China  and  Korea 
models  in  sculpture,  painting,  and  temple  decorations. 
All  these  things  are  a great  means  of  progress  to  a com- 
paratively barbarous  people.  But  they  go  only  so  far, 
no  farther.  It  is  Christianity  only  that  can  furnish  the 
power  as  well  as  the  standard  of  continued  and  unlim- 
ited progress.  Unfortunately  the  Buddhist  leaders, 
when  well  established  in  the  land  and  thei,r  followers 
from  among  the  rulers  and  nobles  were  numerous,  and 
when  they  had  great  temples  and  broad  lands — in  fact, 
when  they  became  rich  and  lived  in  ease — fell  away  even 
below  their  own  creed.  They  became  worldly,  proud, 
loose  in  habits  of  living,  even  lawless.  Of  course  this 
soon  produced  a bad  effect  upon  the  morals,  education, 
and  literature  of  the  nation. 

Mention  is  made  of  a university  in  Kioto  and  other 
schools  established  by  great  nobles.  Some  of  the  Em- 
perors were  undoubtedly  versed  in  the  Chinese  classics, 
history,  and  poetry,  and  did  much  to  help  on  the  cause 
of  education  among  the  aristocratic  classes.  Unfortu- 
nately much  of  the  scholarship  was  mere  pedantry,  im- 
itating the  Chinese  style  of  composition,  to  the  neg- 
lect of  the  practical  uses  of  learning.  Nevertheless, 
while  it  was  all  the  fashion  in  court  circles  and  among 
scholars  to  affect  high-sounding  Chinese  words  and  the 
stilted  style  of  composition,  this  period  is  accredited 
with  the  working  out  of  the  Japanese  syllabic  alphabet 
called  kana.  A famous  priest,  Kobo  Daishi  (died  835 
A.D.),  has  the  honor  of  completing  this  syllabary.  By 
shortening  certain  Chinese  characters,  forty-seven  syl- 
labic characters  were  gotten,  simple  and  easily  writ- 
ten. Thus  was  reduced  to  i the  sound  1;  g short- 
ened gave  the  syllable  ro;  was  reduced  to 


94 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


ho;  etc.  With  these  forty-seven  characters  one 
can  write  the  Japanese  language  without  using  any 
Chinese  characters  at  all.  It  is  therefore  creditable  to 
a few  Japanese  poets  and  novelists  of  this  period  that 
they,  contrary  to  the  fashion  of  the  Chinese  style  of 
writing,  used  this  syllabic  kana , and  cultivated  a pure 
Japanese  style  of  composition.  Some  of  these  were 
princesses  and  court  ladies.  These  writers  of  pure  Japa- 
nese, say  frpm  800  to  1200  A.D.,  make  the  golden  age 
in  Japanese  literature  as  distinguished  from  the  Chinese 
styles.  Their  writings,  chiefly  romance  and  poetry,  are 
now  invaluable  to  modern  Japanese  scholars  who  wish 
to  know  something  about  their  language  in  those  earlier 
days,  as  well  as  for  the  pictures  of  Japanese  customs  and 
manners  that  shine  out  from  them.  Education  was  con- 
fined to  the  upper  and  ruling  classes,  and  was  not  by 
any  means  general.  The  common  people  had  very  little 
communication  or  information  as  to  the  outside  world. 
The  only  light  that  reached  them  was  probably  a little 
received  from  the  Buddhist  priests,  but  just  how  much 
concern  those  priests  had  for  the  lower  classes  it  is  hard 
to  say. 

In  style  of  living,  just  as  in  education,  there  was  the 
widest  difference  between  the  official  classes  at  the  cap- 
ital and  those  living  in  country  districts.  Kioto,  the 
capital,  was  the  center  of  magnificence  and  of  pleasure. 
The  imperial  palace  was  spacious,  and  its  grounds  were 
beautifully  laid  out.  The  princes  and  great  nobles 
were  housed  in  much  the  same  style.  Some  of  the 
nobles,  as  well  as  the  ministers  of  state,  had  suburban 
residences  built  upon  some  height  overlooking  fine 
scenery  and  wide  prospects.  All  the  arts  and  decora- 
tions of  the  age,  especially  the  art  of  decorative  garden- 
ing, which  had  already  reached  high  development,  were 


STYLE  OF  LIVING  AT  THE  CAPITAL. 


95 


used  to  beautify  those  suburban  yashikis.  At  the  prin- 
cipal gate  of  the  great  yashiki  stood  two-wheeled  carts, 
lacquered  in  black,  gold,  and  silver,  and  drawn  by  well- 
groomed  oxen,  according  to  the  fashion  of  the  times. 
Horses  were  not  much  used.  As  to  dress,  the  court 
nobles  and  their  families  wore  gorgeous  clothing,  rich 
brocades,  embroidered  silks.  It  got  to  be  the  fashion 
with  courtiers  and  high  officials  to  despise  the  work  of 
government  affairs  and  to  give  themselves  to  literary 
culture,  etiquette,  and  pleasure.  Moonlight  parties  in 
the  autumn  and  morning  parties  in  the  spring  were  quite 
fashionable,  and  the  guests  were  regaled  with  music, 
the  making  of  poetry,  and  puns.  Festive  entertainments 
at  certain  times  were  observed;  one  in  April,  when  wine 
cups  were  floated  down  the  stream;  another  in  Februa- 
ry, the  New  Year  season,  when  young  pines  on  the  hills 
were  pulled  up  by  the  roots;  another  in  the  fall,  for 
viewing  the  reddening  maple  leaves;  and  a fourth  more 
elegant  and  literary  than  all,  when  three  boats,  canopied 
and  richly  decorated  with  flowers,  floated  out  upon  some 
water,  the  boat  being  filled  with  persons  accomplished 
in  Chinese  poetry,  music,  and  the  like.  Wine  feasts 
were  also  held,  where,  besides  the  wine,  there  were 
songs  and  dancing.  As  to  the  dancing,  it  was  never  by 
both  sexes,  but  only  by  one  person  at  a time.  Later  in 
this  period  fashion,  dress,  and  pleasure  were  so  much 
thought  of  among  the  upper  classes  that  men  be- 
gan to  imitate  women  by  painting  their  eyebrows  and 
blacking  their  teeth.  Looseness  of  morals  followed. 
The  marriage  relation  was  badly  observed,  and  plurali- 
ty of  wives  became,  fashionable,  the  wives  still  living, 
not  with  their  husbands,  but  apart  in  their  own  houses. 
In  short,  according  to  a Japanese  writer,  “the  first  ob- 
ject of  the  time  was  gratification  of  the  senses.” 


96 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


While  all  this  culture,  wealth,  and  pleasure  were  be- 
ing pursued  at  the  capital  by  government  officials  and 
court  nobles,  “in  the  country  districts  the  people’s 
mode  of  life  was  almost  uncivilized.”  In  Kioto  houses 
were  tiled,  whereas  in  the  country  the  people’s  rude 
huts  were  thatched  with  straw.  Their  chief  business 
was  farming.  Their  sports  and  games  in  the  villages 
were  at  first  few,  but  afterwards  increased  by  dwarf 
dances,  puppet  shows,  juggling,  fortune  telling,  etc. 
In  the  country  districts  there  were  many  abuses  of  gov- 
ernment, roads  were  bad,  and  the  few  carriers  and  post 
horses  provided  were  for  the  officials  only.  Traveling 
was  on  foot,  food  and  cooking  mtensils  all  being  carried 
on  the  back.  At  sunset  the  traveler  sought  shelter  in 
some  temple  or  shrine.  Highway  robbers  were  many; 
or  if  one  traveled  by  boat,  the  pirates  were  to  be 
dreaded.  As  mentioned  in  a former  chapter,  the  Jap- 
anese have  always  been  careful  of  cleanliness.  This 
was  in  part  due  to  the  superstition  that  everywhere  pre- 
vailed. Even  the  sight  of  sickness  and  death  being 
regarded  as  an  occasion  of  pollution,  travelers  were 
often  left  on  the  roadside  to  die  from  hunger  or  disease; 
and  masters  thrust  out  their  own  servants  who  had 
some  chronic  disease,  leaving  them  to  die.  In  time  of 
epidemics  multitudes  of  people  were  swept  away.  Re- 
viewing this  period,  it  seems  that  while  the  upper 
or  ruling  classes  were  rising  in  intelligence  and  in 
the  arts  of  life,  the  common  people  were  either  put 
down  lower,  or  stood  very  little  higher  than  they 
did  at  the  opening  of  this  period,  eight  hundred  years 
previous.  The  twelfth  century  closed  this  long  period 
with  civil  wars  and  a general  overturning,  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  more  stress  and  strife  in  the  future.  What 
the  final  result  will  be  we  shall  see  in  the  sequel. 


CHAPTER  IY. 


SHOGUNS  IN  POWER— EMPERORS  HELD  DOWN- 
CIVIL  WARS  OF  MILITARY  LORDS  (1192-1603). 

I.  The  Duarchy  Explained. 

A word  about  the  dual  government,  and  the  author- 
ity of  the  Emperors  during  this  long  period  of  over 
live  centuries,  may  not  be  out  of  place.  No  blooded 
nobleman  or  military  lord  ever  attempted  to  seize  the 
throne  and  make  himself  an  Emperor.  In  all  their  strug- 
gle to  keep  the  supremacy  the  policy  of  the  Shoguns  was 
to  rule  in  the  name  of  the  Emperor.  For  centuries  the 
Emperors  were  held  down,  shut  up  in  their  palaces,  set 
up  and  put  down  as  mere  puppets  in  the  hands  of  the 
Shoguns,  which  reminds  us  of  the  mayors  of  the  palace, 
Charles  Martel  and  Peppin  the  Short  in  French  history. 
And  yet,  for  all  that,  there  was  a certain  veneration  for 
their  Emperors  which  the  nation  never  lost;  and  there- 
fore these  Shoguns,  the  actual  rulers,  made  an  outward 
show  of  respecting  them  too,  even  when  they  were  con- 
trolling them  in  the  interests  of  their  own  ambitious 
schemes.  And  so,  in  the  quarrels  and  civil  wars  of  the 
period,  whichever  side  was  victorious  enough  to  get 
possession  of  the  person  of  the  Emperor,  and  thus  make 
a show  of  carrying  out  his  will  as  the  Son  of  Heaven, 
had  great  advantage,  whereas  the  other  side  was  thrown 
into  the  bad  plight  of  being  “rebels.” 

During  this  period  there  was  a double  system  of  gov- 
ernment : two  capitals,  Kioto  and  Kamakura ; two 
rulers,  the  nominal  one,  the  Emperor,  and  the  actual 
7 (97) 


98 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


one,  the  Shogun;  two  governments,  the  throne  and  the 
camp;  two  courts,  the  old  aristocratic  nobles  at  Kioto 
and  the  military  lords  and  Daimyos  at  Kamakura  and 
in  the  provinces.  In  the  actual  control  of  things  the 
Emperor  counted  for  little,  while  the  Shoguns  were  the 
real  rulers.  Yoritomo,  the  founder  of  the  Shogun- 
ate  and  the  new  capital,  saw  to  it  that  the  territorial 
lords,  or  Daimyos,  should  become  his  vassals,  and  he 
confirmed  the  possession  of  their  lands  in  order  to  unite 
them  directly  to  him  as  their  liege  lord. 

II.  Yoritomo’s  Feudal  System. 

Kamakura  is  to-day  an  unimportant  town  of  six 
thousand,  about  fifteen  miles  westward  from  Yokoha- 
ma, but  it  was  once  a prosperous  city  of  probably  a 
million  people.  While  his  brother  Yoshitsune  and 
other  chief  captains  were  fighting  and  winning  victories 
over  the  Tairas,  Yoritomo  was  laying  out  and  building 
his  new  capital,  Kamakura.  And  while  there  are  to- 
day only  a temple  to  Hachiman  (god  of  war),  a mam- 
moth bronze  image  to  Buddha,  and  upon  the  top  of  the 
knoll  the  tomb  of  Yoritomo,  and  while  there  are  rice 
fields  and  growing  vegetables  around  the  place,  here  once 
stood  the  mansion  of  the  Shogun  and  others  less  grand  of 
the  military  lords;  here  were  splendid  courts,  avenues, 
temples  and  monuments,  military  reviews,  tournaments 
and  festivals,  the  shining  armor,  swords,  and  lances 
of  captains  and  their  troops,  the  fine  dressing  of  rich 
merchants  and  their  sons.  All  of  this  dazzled  the  eyes 
of  gay  ladies  who,  though  kept  behind  the  screens, 
heard  and  even  saw  all  that  was  going  on.  Kamakura 
had  arisen  in  the  East  as  a rival  of  Kioto;  military 
feudalism  had  been  set  up  in  Japan.  Now  and  then, 
during  this  period,  there  were  times  of  peace  and  thrift; 


MILITARY  FEUDALISM. 


99 


but  the  period  as  a whole  is  notorious  for  its  civil  wars 
and  bloody  battles,  intrigues  and  parties,  disorder  in 
the  towns  and  cities,  and  devastation  of  the  crops  in 
the  country  districts.  The  poor  peasantry  suffered  most 
of  all.  Even  the  priests  caught  the  spirit  of  war  and 
blood,  and  the  great  temples  were  nothing  else  than 
fortified  castles,  where  troops  were  quartered,  whence 
they  sallied  forth  to  take  sides  in  the  civil  strife.  But  we 
spare  our  readers  a view  of  this  wilderness  of  intrigues, 
battles,  assassinations,  suicides,  robberies,  and  devasta- 
tions. Let  a few  examples  tell  the  tale  of  the  times. 

Yoritomo,  having  reached  the  very  zenith  of  power, 
holding  the  reins  both  of  civil  and  military  government 
in  his  hands,  did  not  live  long.  Falling  from  his  horse, 
he  died  in  1199.  Great  in  military  affairs,  as  well  as  in 
administration  of  government,  he  was  suspicious,  cruel, 
and  selfish.  Like  some  others  famous  in  history,  it  is 
said  of  him  that  he  usually  mistreated  those  who  had 
served  him  best.  A blot  is  upon  his  name  for  the  way 
he  treated  his  brother,  Yoshitsune.  As  set  forth  in  a 
former  chapter,  this  brave  and  able  general,  returning 
from  his  victory  over  the  Tairas,  expected  to  present 
himself,  with  his  trophies,  at  Kamakura;  but,  because 
of  his  popularity  in  the  eyes  of  the  nation,  Yoritomo 
became  jealous  of  him,  and,  listening  to  a false  tale, 
would  not  allow  him  even  to  enter  the  capital,  kept 
him  waiting  in  a village  outside,  nor  would  he  even 
read  his  letters,  in  which  he  earnestly  protested  his  faith- 
fulness. Finally,  pretending  to  believe  him  a traitor, 
Yoritomo  ordered  that  he  be  assassinated.  Hunted  from 
place  to  place,  he  was  at  last  murdered,  and  his  head 
brought.  For  this  inhuman  crime  Yoritomo’s  name  is 
held  in  small  honor,  while  Yoshitsune  is  one  of  the  fa- 
vorite heroes  of  the  Japanese — an  instance  of  the  law 


100 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


of  historical  retribution.  “Yoshitsune  the  brave, 
the  loving,  the  chivalrous,  is  the  Japanese  boys’ 
model;  and  on  May  5,  when  the  images  of  illustrious 
heroes  are  set  out  in  festive  array,  none,  saving  the 
Emperor’s, ‘receives  a higher  place  and  greater  honor. 
No  other  thrills  the  hearts  of  Japanese  boys  like  the 
name  of  Yoshitsune.” 

After  the  death  of  Yoritomo  his  son  succeeded  to 
the  Shogunship,  but  was  afterwards  deposed  and  assas- 
sinated in  accordance  with  his  grandfather’s  orders. 
Then  another  son  succeeded,  but  he  was  beheaded  by 
his  nephew,  and  this  may  be  taken  as  a sample  of  what 
often  happened  during  this  period.  Thus  Yoritomo’s 
line  of  Shoguns  came  to  an  end  1219  A.D.  Then  the 
Shogunship  passed  nominally  to  a succession  of  boy 
princes,  first  of  the  Fujiwara  family,  and  then  of  the 
imperial  house,  but  the  real  sway  was  held  by  the  Ho  jo 
family  as  Regents.  As  seen  on  a previous  page,  Yori- 
tomo married  into  the  Hojo  family,  which  family  are 
now  the  real  rulers.  They  exercise  power  in  a double 
sense — that  is,  over  the  Shoguns  and  over  the  Emperors. 
They  worked  the  wires  and  the  schemes  not  only  at 
Kioto  but  also  at  Kamakura.  But  with  all  their  selfish 
scheming,  the  Ilojos  had  their  name  made  memorable 
in  history  by  the  repelling  of  the  invasion  of  the  Chinese 
and  Monguls  in  1291. 

In  Mongolia  there  had  appeared  a conqueror  of 
world-wide  fame,  Genghis  Khan,  sweeping  away  Tar- 
tar kings  and  Chinese  Emperors.  His  grandson,  Kr- 
blai  Khan,  extended  the  Mongul  conquest  into  South 
China  and  over  a great  part  of  Korea,  and  conceived  the 
project  of  conquering  Japan  also.  He  could  see  no 
reason  why  the  rulers  of  Japan  should  not  bring  tribute 
and  pay  him  homage  like  the  rest  of  Asia.  According- 


KUBLAI  KHAN  THREATENS  JAPAN. 


101 


ly,  he  sent  envoys  through  Korea  to  Japan  to  caution 
against  the  seeming  indifference  of  her  rulers  to  the 
great  conqueror,  and  the  danger  of  such  a course.  A 
second  envoy  was  sent,  but  no  answer  was  given;  in- 
stead thereof  orders  were  issued  by  the  Hojo  Regent  to 
expel  the  envoys.  All  this  caused  much  uneasiness. 
“And  the  Emperor  sent  a prayer  written  by  himself  to  be 
laid  up  before  the  national  shrine  in  Ise  for  the  heaven- 
ly protection  of  the  empire,  and  he  caused  such  prayers 
to  be  said  at  all  the  shrines  and  temples  in  the  land.” 
Kublai  sent  one  embassy  after  another,  but  Japan’s 
rulers  refused  to  make  answer  to  messages  which  were 
really  nothing  else  than  national  insults.  Finally,  en- 
raged by  this  unaccountable  refusal  of  Japan’s  rulers 
to  be  treated  as  his  tributary,  he  determined  to  chas- 
tise them,  and  sent  a fleet  of  one  hundred  and  flfty  war 
junks  against  them.  The  Koreans  were  likewise  or- 
dered to  reenforce  his  fleet.  Appearing  on  the  coasts 
of  Chikuzen  and  armed  with  guns  which  the  Japanese 
did  not  have,  they  made  havoc  with  them  firing  at  long 
range;  nevertheless  the  Daimyos  of  Kiushiu  and  their 
followers  made  heroic  defense.  The  Chinese  com- 
mander being  seriously  wounded  and  a heavy  gale  hav- 
ing damaged  his  vessels,  with  the  remnant  of  his  fleet 
he  went  away  in  the  night.  Once  more  Kublai  sent  an 
envoy,  but  he  was  put  to  death  at  Kamakura;  and  once 
again  two  envoys  were  sent,  but  the  answer  given  them 
was  the  sword.  Of  course  the  Shogun’s  government 
knew  what  to  prepare  for,  and  so  one  of  the  Hojo 
family  was  put  in  command  of  all  the  coasts  west  and 
south;  the  imperial  guards  were  sent  from  Kioto,  and 
orders  issued  to  the  Kiushiu  Daimyos  to  build  forts 
along  the  coasts. 

Kublai  Khan,  having  now  completely  mastered  China, 


102  japan:  country,  court,  people. 

sent  against  Japan  an  army  of  one  hundred  thousand 
Chinese  and  ten  thousand  Koreans  with  a great  fleet 
of  war  vessels.  This  was  in  May,  1281  A.D.  They 
bore  down  upon  the  coasts  near  where  the  city  of  Na- 
gasaki now  stands.  With  their  firearms  and  cannons 
the  Chinese  had  great  advantage  in  bombarding  forts 
and  slaughtering  Japanese  soldiers.  But  for  all  that, 
the  Japanese  fought  bravely,  and  it  was  impossible  for 
the  invaders  to  effect  a permanent  landing.  The  Jap- 
anese vessels,  though  smaller  and  not  so  well-equipped, 
were  swifter,  and  by  quick,  bold  attacks  several  Chi- 
nese vessels  were  set  on  fire  or  boarded,  and  their  crews 
slaughtered.  For  sixty  days  the  Chinese  army  and 
fleet  were  kept  at  bay.  Providence  intervened,  and 
a terrible  storm  swept  down  upon  the  Chinese  fleet, 
wrecking  the  ships  and  drowning  multitudes  of  soldiers. 
The’ surviving  remnant  took  refuge  in  an  island  off  the 
coast,  but  they  were  attacked  by  Japanese  troops  and 
either  killed  or  captured,  all  except  three  who  escaped 
to  tell  the  tale.  That  Chinese  Armada  sent  against  the 
Japanese  reminds  one  of  a similar  expedition  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  years  later,  the  Spanish  Armada  against 
England.  The  result  was  the  same:  a storm  helped  the 
defenders  of  native  land.  Disappointed,  the  Chinese 
and  Tartars  were  taught  to  leave  the  Japanese  alone. 
As  a result  of  this  victory,  they  won  reputation  for 
themselves  and  the  nation.  Hitherto  they  had  stood  in 
considerable  awe  of  the  great  and  ancient  China,  but 
now  all  diplomatic  intercourse  was  broken  off.  This  war 
called  out  a patriotic  spirit  and  for  a while  united  all 
hearts.  The  glorious  victory  brought  increased  honor 
to  military  men,  and  to  soldiering  as  a career.  Another 
curious  result  of  this  war  was  this:  everybody  was 
deeply  religious  and  gladly  paid  the  priests  large  sums 


FALL  OF  HOJO  SHOGUNS. 


103 


of  money  for  their  prayers  offered  throughout  the  coun- 
try. But  when  the  war  was  over  and  the  country  deliv- 
ered the  priests  still  demanded  money,  saying  it  was 
their  prayers  that  had  saved  the  land.  This  was  turn- 
ing prayers  into  pennies  in  an  unexpected  way. 

Notwithstanding  the  united  patriotism  called  out  by 
the  recent  Tartar  invasion,  very  soon  Japanese  affairs 
became  more  deplorable  than  ever.  When  the  Em- 
peror Godaigo  succeeded  to  the  throne  (1318  A.D.)  he 
realized  how  low  and  weak  the  throne  had  become,  and, 
though  compelled  to  abdicate,  determined  to  throw  off 
the  rule  of  the  Hojo  Shoguns  and  regain  the  throne. 
Fond  of  pomp,  luxury,  and  gayety,  he  showed  considera- 
ble energy  in  his  efforts  to  regain  the  throne.  He  in- 
invited  the  monks  with  their  troops  to  join  him,  but  the 
attempt  was  a failure  and  the  Hojos  sent  him  in  exile 
to  an  island.  Not  discouraged,  however,  he  made  his 
escape  from  the  island,  and,  gathering  another  army, 
marched  upon  Kioto.  At  this  juncture  there  appeared 
two  chief  tans  who  threw  all  their  forces  on  the  side  of 
the  throne  and  against  the  Kamakura  Shoguns.  One 
of  them  is  a hero  greatly  admired  of  the  Japanese  to 
this  day,  Kusunoki  Asahige,  who  is  held  as  a model  of 
patriotism  and  loyalty  to  the  Emperor.  The  other 
chieftian  standing  forth  at  this  trying  time  was  Nitta 
Yoshisada,  of  whom  we  shall  hear  later.  For  a while 
victory  perched  upon  the  imperial  banners,  the  Sho- 
gun’s capital  was  attacked  from  three  sides,  and,  though 
his  forces  fought  valiantly,  Kamakura  was  captured 
and  burned.  Thus  the  Hojo  power  fell,  never  to  rise 
again.  The  restoration  of  Godaigo  to  the  throne  gave 
some  hope  of  a return  to  the  old  single  rule  of  the  sov- 
ereign, without  the  intervention  of  a Shogun;  but  it 
was  a vain  hope. 


104 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


Strange  to  say,  the  Emperor  did  not  prize  the  faithful 
warriors  Kusunoki  and  Nitta,  who  risked  all  for  his 
cause,  but  made  the  largest  rewards  of  territory  to 
others  less  worthy. 

Avoiding  the  confusing  details  of  this  dark  and 
troublesome  time,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  for  about 
sixty  years  there  was  a double  dynasty  of  Emperors, 
known  as  the  Northern  and  Southern,  and  that  in  this 
period  of  constant  conflict  the  two  patriotic  chieftains 
just  mentioned  perished,  while  on  the  contrary  Takauji, 
an  ambitious  member  of  the  Ashikaga  family,  rose  into 
prominence  and  power.  He  got  himself  appointed 
Shogun  by  one  of  the  puppet  Emperors  of  the  Northern 
Dynasty,  returned  to  Kamakura,  rebuilt  the  city,  and 
founded  the  third  line  of  Shoguns — namely,  the  Ashi- 
kaga Dynasty.  Within  less  than  one  hundred  and  fifty 
years  two  dynasties  of  Shoguns  have  risen  and  fallen, 
the  Minamoto  and  the  Ho  jo.  We  shall  now  have  a 
third. 

III.  Christianity  Enters. 

The  Ashikaga  line  was  closely  connected  with  the 
famous  Minamoto  family,  and  the  first  of  this  new  dy- 
nasty was  Ashikaga  Tajauji.  During  their  reign  the 
disorders  that  prevailed  under  the  Hojos  continued. 
The  imperial  throne  sunk  lower  and  lower,  and  the 
military  lords  became  more  powerful,  and  the  country 
was  more  frequently  torn  with  civil  wars.  Says  Rein: 
“How  low  the  prestige  of  the  Emperor  was,  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  when  one  of  them  died  in  Kioto,  about 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  his  corpse  had  to 
be  kept  forty  days  at  the  gates  of  the  palace,  because 
the  means  were  wanting  to  defray  the  costs  of  the  pre- 
scribed funeral  ceremony.  To  the  horrors  of  never- 
ending  civil  wars  were  added  about  that  time  frequent 


FEUDAL  LORDS  IN  POWER. 


105 


violent  earthquakes,  drought  and  failure  of  crops,  fam- 
ine and  devastating  diseases.  Even  the  consolation  of 
religion  was  wanting,  for  the  Buddhist  priests  had 
long  been  strangers  to  the  duty  of  imparting  whatever 
of  comfort  or  hope  their  poor  religion  might  really 
have;  trade  and  industry,  except  for  the  equipment  of 
warriors,  were  quite  neglected;  the  ruin  became  deeper 
and  more  universal.” 

“About  the  year  1545  Kioto  was  so  reduced  that  no 
one  could  live  in  it,  and  any  one  who  ventured  to  remain 
amidst  the  ruins  ran  the  risk  of  being  burned,  murdered, 
or  dying  by  starvation.  The  court  nobility  had  left 
the  city  and  sought  shelter  and  protection  with  the 
feudal  lords  (Daimyos)  in  the  provinces.  The  peasant’s 
lot  was  most  miserable  of  all.  Impoverished,  his  spirit 
broken,  and  without  hope  of  reaping  the  fruit  of  his 
planting,  he  was  inclined  to  leave  untilled  his  field. 
Bands  of  robbers  followed  the  army  through  the  coun- 
try, making  terror,  lawlessness,  and  oftentimes  want  in 
many  a section  of  the  country.  Those  living  near  the 
coasts,  especially  west  and  south,  turned  away  from 
their  shops  and  fields  to  the  sea,  where  they  followed 
the  life  of  the  pirate.” 

Since  now  the  succession  of  shogunship  was  heredita- 
ry, the  governorships  of  the  provinces  likewise  became 
so;  that  is  to  say,  the  governors  were  now  fixed  feudal 
lords  in  their  provinces;  hence  this  period  was  marked 
by  the  founding  of  powerful  and  almost  independent 
Daimyos,  with  their  clansmen  as  vassals  of  the  soil. 
The  more  powerful  ones  rendered  scant  respect  alike  to 
Shoguns  and  Emperors,  and  were  ambitious  to  enlarge 
their  territory.  It  came  to  pass  that  while  the  Shogun 
had  a hard  struggle  to  maintain  his  authority  over  the 
whole  country,  these  powerful  Daimyos  were  fighting 


THE  CASTLE  OF  NAGOYA. 


PORTUGUESE  DISCOVER  JAPAN. 


107 


among  themselves,  the  stronger  invading  the  weaker, 
seizing  his  castle  and  making  him  his  vassal.  It  was  a 
time  of  castle  building.  To-day,  as  the  traveler  passes 
through  the  country  he  sees  ever  and  anon  the  white 
castles  planted  upon  the  heights.  Those  great  cas- 
tles, with  their  massive  walls  and  wide  moats  below, 
were  built  by  the  feudal  lords  or  Daimyos  of  this  pe- 
riod. Each  Daimyo  must  of  course  have  his  trained 
retainers  (Samurai),  mailed  and  wearing  two  swords, 
while  the  peasantry  and  artisan  class  are  attached  to 
the  soil  in  vassalage. 

Meanwhile,  among  the  most  important  events  of  the 
Ashikaga  period  were  the  coming  of  Roman  Catholic 
missionaries  and  the  beginning  of  intercourse  with  Eu- 
ropean nations.  Marco  Polo,  a celebrated  traveler 
who  came  to  China,  and  for  seventeen  years  held  a post 
in  Kublai  Khan’s  court  at  Pekin,  and  who  returned  to 
his  native  Venice  in  1295,  was  the  first  to  make  Japan 
known  to  the  Europeans.  But  the  first  Europeans  to 
set  foot  in  Japan  were  the  Portuguese  Mendez  Pinto 
and  two  others.  In  1542  they  landed  on  the  south 
coast  of  Kiushiu.  At  that  time  the  Portuguese  had  not 
only  a flourishing  trading  settlement  at  Macao,  on  the 
coast  of  China,  but  also  other  colonial  ports  in  the 
Straits  Settlements  and  other  places  on  India’s  coast. 
Indeed,  at  that  time  Portugal  and  Spain  were  the  lead- 
ing nations  of  Europe  in  power  upon  the  high  seas,  in 
foreign  trade,  and  in  numerous  colonies.  Naturally, 
Pinto  and  his  companions  were  thinking  about  opening 
trade  with  the  Japanese.  But  what  most  interested  the 
Japanese,  who  now  for  the  first  time  looked  upon  Eu- 
ropean faces,  were  their  beards  and  their  guns.  They 
were  quick  to  see  that  these  guns  were  better  than  any- 
thing they  had  for  long-range  fighting  or  for  hunting. 


108 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


They  welcomed  the  foreigners,  quickly  learned  how  to 
shoot,  and  then  how  to  make  the  guns  themselves.  A 
great  sensation  was  caused  by  one  of  these  Portuguese 
when,  being  a good  shot,  he  took  with  him  several  Jap- 
anese duck  hunting,  and  brought  down  his  first  brace 
of  ducks.  They  hastened  to  the  Governor  and  told 
him  of  the  great  marvel.  He  at  once  asked  for  the 
gun  to  be  shown  to  him.  After  a stay  of  six  months 
an  agreement  was  made  allowing  the  Portuguese  to 
come  with  their  ships  for  purposes  of  trade,  and  this 
was  the  beginning  of  trade  and  intercourse  with  Eu- 
ropeans. 

This  trade  and  travel  to  Japan  was  the  opening  of  the 
door  for  the  coming  in  of  Roman  Catholic  Christian- 
ity. St.  Xavier,  the  famous  Jesuit  missionary,  had  just 
arrived  from  Europe  at  Goa,  in  South  India.  He  met 
there  a Japanese  named  Anjiro,  who  had  come  thither 
with  the  Portuguese,  who  had  learned  the  Portuguese 
language,  and  who  had  been  baptized  into  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  Xavier  was  at  once  deeply  interest- 
ed in  the  Japanese  nation,  and,  with  Anjiro  as  his  com- 
panion, guide,  and  interpreter,  he  landed  at  Kagoshi- 
ma, in  Southern  Japan,  in  1549  A.D.  After  having  to 
leave  several  places  on  account  of  rivalries  and  jealous- 
ies of  local  Daimyos,  he  came  to  Bungo,  where  he  was 
kindly  received  and  encouraged  in  his  work.  After 
preaching  there  with  some  success  through  Anjiro  as 
Ids  interpreter,  he  went  up  to  Kioto;  but,  after  vain 
efforts  to  obtain  an  audience  with  the  Emperor,  and 
finding  the  city  in  a confused  and  dilapidated  condi- 
tion, he  did  not  get  the  ear  of  the  people  as  he  had  ex- 
pected, and  so  returned  to  Bungo.  In  a few  months 
he  left  Japan  and  went  on  a mission  to  China,  which 
lie  never  accomplished,  because  shortly  afterwards  he 


PREACHING  OF  CATHOLIC  MISSIONARIES.  109 


died  on  an  island  in  the  mouth  of  Canton  liiver.  In- 
spired by  his  example,  Roman  Catholic  missionaries 
(Portuguese  and  Spaniards)  began  to  pour  into  Japan. 
It  being  a time  of  social,  political,  and  moral  demoral- 
ization, as  already  observed,  these  missionaries  attract- 
ed to  themselves  many  followers  who  longed  for  better 
things.  Indeed,  their  success  in  winning  converts  dur- 
ing the  first  fifty  years  is  remarkable.  On  pages  86 
and  99  mention  was  made  of  the  political  confusion, 
wretchedness,  and  civil  wars  of  this  period;  but  sud- 
denly there  appeared  above  this  confusion  and  wretch- 
edness a man  who  sought  to  restore  to  the  troubled 
country  discipline  and  order,  even  though  it  must  be 
done  with  an  iron  hand.  That  man  was  Ota  Nobuna- 
ga,  the  first  of  the  three  great  men  in  Japanese  history. 
Tracing  his  descent  back  to  Kiyomori  and  the  Taira 
clan,  he  was  the  son  of  a soldier,  and,  like  his  father, 
was  of  a warlike  spirit,  and,  like  him,  was  in  favor  of 
standing  up  for  the  Emperors  as  the  true  rulers.  Inher- 
iting possessions  in  Owari  Province,  he  soon  won  six 
others  with  his  sword.  In  his  youth  he  was  inclined 
to  be  profligate,  but  when  the  steward  of  the  house 
committed  suicide  as  a protest  against  his  dissolute 
course  he  completely  reformed.  But  unfortunately,  ac- 
cording to  the  cruel  and  warlike  spirit  of  the  times,  he 
did  not  hesitate  to  use  his  sword  upon  those  who  op- 
posed him,  even  his  brother  and  father-in-law.  The 
fame  of  his  bravery  and  unbroken  victory  in  battle 
spreading  far  and  wide,  he  was  appealed  to  from  two 
quarters.  One  of  the  young  Ashikagas  wished  to  be 
Shogun  instead  of  his  brother,  just  assassinated.  Xo- 
bunaga  secured  the  sliogunship  for  the  young  prince, 
but  sometime  afterwards  deposed  him,  and  this  was 
the  end  of  the  Ashikaga  Shoguns.  The  Emperor  also 


110 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


appealed  to  him  to  pacify  the  country,  but  this  was  a 
much  harder  thing  to  do  than  setting  up  or  putting 
down  a Shogun.  He  had  sense  enough  to  do  one  thing 
at  a time.  He  first  restored  order  in  the  Emperor’s 
capital,  so  that  people  could  in  quietness  pursue  their 
daily  business.  He  repaired  the  Emperor’s  palace,  the 
bridges  and  streets  inside  and  fortifications  around  the 
city,  and  improved  the  roads  in  the  surrounding  dis- 
tricts. The  Emperor  now  appointed  him  Minister  of 
the  Right. 

Nobunaga,  looking  over  the  whole  empire,  would  pac- 
ify and  govern  it  in  the  name  of  the  Emperor,  but  he 
saw  two  powerful  obstacles  in  the  way:  one  was  the 
Buddhist  priests;  the  other,  the  strong  and  almost  in- 
dependent feudal  Daimyos  in  the  provinces.  (We  are 
aware  that,  in  strict  order  of  time,  the  title  Daimyo 
came  into  use  later.)  For  instance,  in  the  Kwanto  east- 
ward, in  the  central  provinces  directly  west,  and  in  Kiu- 
shiu  the  great  Daimyos  were  carrying  on  their  own  wars 
and  feuds,  caring  little  either  for  Shogun  or  Emperor. 
Nobunaga  also  saw  that  he  must  destroy  the  strong  cas- 
tles which  the  haughty  and  corrupt  priests  of  Buddha 
had  built.  Among  the  strongest  of  these  was  the.well- 
fortified  castle  of  Mt.  Heizan,  near  Lake  Biwa,  and  the 
Hongwanji,  in  the  city  of  Osaka.  The  former  had  at  that 
time  three  thousand  buildings.  Standing  one  day  in 
full  view  of  its  mountain  site,  he  ordered  his  astonished 
generals  to  destroy  the  place  with  fire  and  sword,  saying: 
“The  priests  transgress  their  own  rules,  eating  flesh 
and  stinking  vegetables  (onions  and  garlic),  keeping 
concubines,  and  neglecting  prayer  and  the  sacred  writ- 
ings.” The  next  day  his  command  was  carried  out; 
men,  women,  and  children  were  slain,  and  buildings 


NOBUNAGA  PEBISHES. 


Ill 


burned.  Later  he  turned  liis  wrath  upon  the  Buddhist 
castle  at  Osaka,  whose  priests  had  been  his  sworn  ene- 
mies for  a decade  of  years. 

His  policy  toward  the  Christian  missionaries  was 
quite  different.  Seeing  that  their  doctrines  were  taking 
root  in  the  land,  he  favored  them,  and  built  a chapel 
at  Kioto  for  the  Jesuit  preachers,  and  gave  them  a site 
for  a settlement  near  his  own  magnificent  castle  on  Lake 
Biwa.  In  various  ways  he  helped  them,  and  protected 
them  against  the  persecution  of  the  Buddhists. 

In  overcoming  the  powerful  territorial  Daimyos,  so  as 
to  bring  all  of  the  country  under  one  system  of  govern- 
ment, he  was  joined  by  five  able  commanders,  two  of 
whom,  Hideyoshi  and  Iyeyosu , are  destined  to  win 
great  and  lasting  renown.  He  had  already  defeated 
the  armies  of  the  military  lords  in  the  Kwanto  and  far- 
ther northward,  and  had  sent  his  favorite  and  ablest 
general,  Hideyoshi,  to  bring  the  powerful  Mori  in  the 
west  into  subjection,  when  he  met  a violent  death  by 
the  treachery  of  one  of  his  own  generals.  Seeing  him- 
self suddenly  surrounded  in  a temple  at  Kioto,  where 
he  had  stopped  for  a day,  he  knew  what  it  meant,  and, 
finding  escape  impossible, retired  to  an  inner  room,  and, 
setting  fire  to  it,  calmly  committed  h(wa  Jriri  and  was 
consumed  with  the  building.  This  was  in  the  year  1583. 
He  was  only  thirty-nine  years  of  age.  Had  he  lived,  no 
doubt  he  would  have  brought  the  whole  country  under 
his  rule,  in  the  name  of  the  Emperor. 

The  Buddhist  priests  and  Roman  Catholic  historians 
take  opposite  views  of  the  character  of  this  military 
chieftain.  The  former  regard  him  as  a demon  and  perse- 
cutor who  deserved  death.  The  latter  speak  of  him  as 
a defender  of  the  Church  and  friend  of  Christianity. 
He  did  favor  the  Christians  and  help  them,  but  it  was 


112  japan:  country,  court,  people. 

probably  with  him  a matter  of  state  policy.  He  of 
course  saw  that  the  morals  and  habits  of  the  Catholic 
teachers  were  better  than  those  of  the  Buddhists.  He 
was  not  a Christian,  for  in  a splendid  temple  which  he 
built  he  had  his  own  statue  set  up  with  other  idols,  and 
caused  his  own  son  to  bow  down  to  it  along  with  his 
other  vassals.  Kobunaga,  it  is  said,  was  tall  of  stat- 
ure, of  unbounded  ambition,  but  brave,  magnanimous,  a 
lover  of  justice,  an  enemy  of  treason — a heart  and  spir- 
it, say  the  Jesuits,  that  made  up  for  many  defects.  He 
had  a quick  and  penetrating  mind  for  planning  a cam- 
paign or  leading  a battle,  and,  ever  seeking  to  read  the 
thoughts  of  others  while  concealing  his  own,  he  was 
created  to  be  a commander.  Summing  up  his  character, 
we  may  say  with  Rein:  ‘ 4 Rising  up  in  the  midst  of  inter- 
nal confusion,  he  stood  as  the  champion  of  the  Emperor’s 
right,  as  the  overthrower  of  the  Ashikaga  Shogunate, 
as  the  foe  of  Buddhists,  whose  power  he  checked,  and  as 
the  protector  of  Christianity,  though  a stranger  to  its 
spirit.” 

IV.  The  Spread  of  Christianity  in  This  Period. 

Under  the  protection  of  Nobunaga,  the  Christian 
doctrine  as  taught  by  the  Roman  Catholics  had  spread 
rapidly,  so  that  about  the  year  of  his  untimely  death 
(1583),  there  were  in  Japan  two  hundred  churches,  and 
one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  converts,  all  this  in  less 
than  thirty-five  years!  In  Kiushiu,  where  it  was  first 
preached,  the  Christian  faith  had  won  several  princes 
or  Daimyos,  who  as  zealous  converts  induced  their  peo- 
ple to  pull  down  Buddhist  temples  and  build  Chris- 
tian churches  instead.  The  Daimyo  of  Tosa,  in  Shikoku, 
also  embraced  the  new  doctrine  in  spite  of  the  opposi- 
tion of  his  leading  men.  On  the  mainland  too,  skirting 


NOBLES  VISIT  THE  POPE. 


113 


the  northern  shore  of  the  Inland  Sea,  from  Na- 
gato  in  the  west,  on  through  Harima  and  Setsu  Prov- 
inces, to  Kioto  and  Lake  Biwa,  a distance  of  six  hundred 
miles,  were  many  Christians,  and  among  them  a few 
Daimyos,  princes,  and  army  officers  were  enrolled.  A 
large  church  in  the  capital  was  open  daily  for  preaching 
and  mass,  the  same  having  been  built  by  Nobunaga  him- 
self; and  there  were  said  to  be  twenty  thousand  ad- 
herents in  and  near  the  city.  Besides  the  churches  and 
congregations  of  native  Christians,  the  Jesuit  mission- 
aries had  in  Hondo,  the  main  island,  three  settlements 
where  by  the  side  of  the  church  was  the  school  or  the 
monastery — namely,  at  Kioto ; on  Lake  Biwa,  near  the 
great  castle,  called  “Nobunaga’s  Paradise;”  and  at  Aka- 
shi,  in  Harima.  But  the  oldest  Jesuit  settlement  was 
at  Funai  (now  Oita),  in  Kiushiu,  where  there  was  a flour- 
ishing mission  college.  In  the  college  twenty  Portu- 
guese fathers  taught  and  bestowed  academic  degrees. 
It  was  in  Kiushiu  that  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  took 
deepest  root  and  won  the  most  converts.  Of  the  forty 
churches  in  the  city  of  Nagasagi,  some  of  the  most 
splendid  were  built  upon  ground  where  before  had  stood 
Buddhist  temples. 

About  the  time  of  Nobunaga’s  death,  upon  the  ad- 
vice of  the  Jesuits,  an  embassy  of  four  young  Japanese 
nobles  were  sent  from  Nagasaki  to  visit  the  pope  at 
Rome.  With  letters  of  salutation  and  profession  of 
fidelity  to  the  Church,  and  with  suitable  presents  from 
the  three  Daimyos  of  Kiushiu,  they  set  sail  for  their  long 
voyage  February  22,  1582.  Going  first  to  Madrid  and 
Lisbon,  they  were  received  in  audience  by  Philip  II. 
The  journey  of  these  young  princes  through  Portugal, 
Spain,  and  Italy  was  a succession  of  ovations.  When 
they  reached  the  Eternal  City  itself,  they  were  received 
8 


114 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


by  high  Church  dignitaries  with  marked  consideration. 
It  was  regarded  as  an  open  trophy  of  the  Church’s  tri- 
umph in  Asia,  that  these  representatives  of  princes  from 
far-off  Japan  should  come  to  bow  the  knee  to  the  pope, 
the  head  of  the  Church.  This  evidence  of  the  conver- 
sion of  Japan’s  princes  and  nobles  was  taken  as  an  off- 
set against  the  mischief  which  Luther  and  other  heretics 
had  wrought  by  their  rebellion  against  the  Holy  Church. 
After  an  absence  of  eight  years,  the  embassy  returned 
to  Nagasaki  bearing  letters  from  the  pope  to  the  Chris- 
tians in  Japan,  but  meanwhile  great  events  and  changes 
had  taken  place,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  sequel. 

V.  Hideyoshi  the  Great — Invasion  of  Korea — 
Opposition  to  the  Christians. 

The  news  of  Nobunaga’s  death  brought  grief  to  the 
Japanese  and  fear  to  the  Jesuit  missionaries.  Ven- 
geance quickly  fell  upon  the  officer  who  had  treach- 
erously caused  Nobunaga’s  death,  and  his  head  was 
brought  and  set  up  in  front  of  the  temple  where  the 
treacherous  deed  had  been  committed.  Meanwhile  Hi- 
deyoshi, hastening  back  to  the  capital,  took  command. 
Nobunaga  left  two  sons  and  an  infant  grandson,  each 
of  whom  had  partisans  among  the  generals  and  terri- 
torial lords.  But  Hideyoshi  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
little  grandson  as  the  heir  and  successor  to  Nobunaga; 
and  so,  becoming  his  guardian,  he  carried  the  grandchild 
in  his  arms  in  the  procession  at  the  public  funeral,  thus 
signifying  to  all  the  nobles,  princes,  and  generals  pres- 
ent his  purpose  to  control  affairs  in  the  interest  of  the 
grandchild  as  Nobunaga’s  successor.  The  sons  and  gen- 
erals of  his  old  master  at  once  opposed  him,  but  he 
overcame  them  either  by  fighting  or  by  discreet  negotia- 
tion. 


HIDEYOSHI  QUELLS  HIS  ENEMIES. 


115 


Hideyoski  had  moved  to  Osaka  and  made  that  liis 
seat,  rebuilding  the  old  castle  there,  its  walls  more  mas- 
sive than  anything  ever  known  before.  That  castle  stood 
until  the  recent  revolution  in  1868.  But  while  absent 
eastward  in  Kwanto,  negotiating  with  Iyeyasu,  with 
whom  he  was  glad  to  be  at  peace,  a prince  in  Shikoku 
made  plans  to  attack  and  seize  Osaka.  Returning  with 
great  speed,  Hideyoshi  crushed  him.  A little  later  he 
prepared  to  bring  into  subjection  Shimadzu,  the  power- 
ful Lord  Satsuma.  This  proud  family  had  been  the  head 
of  the  Satsuma  clan  in  Kiushiu  since  1193,  and  the  clan 
was  noted  for  the  bravery  and  skill  of  its  warriors.  At 
this  time  Shimadzu  claimed  lordship  over  eight  prov- 
inces in  Kiushiu,  and  hence  when  summoned  by  Hide- 
yoshi to  come  to  Kioto  to  pay  homage  to  the  Emperor 
he  stoutly  refused.  Moreover  Hideyoshi’s  army  sent  to 
chastise  him  was  defeated;  whereupon  Hideyoshi  him- 
self took  the  field  at  the  head  of  a great  army  of  over 
two  hundred  thousand  and  drove  the  Satsuma  lord  into 
his  stronghold  at  Kagoshima,  where  he  compelled  him 
to  submit.  Thus  Kiushiu  was  settled.  Knowing  when 
to  be  tolerant  in  the  hour  of  victory,  he  showed  his 
wisdom  by  restoring  to  Shimadzu  his  two  rightful 
provinces,  making  him  give  up  the  rest.  Hideyoshi 
wished  to  be  appointed  Shogun,  but  not  being  a de- 
scendant of  the  Minamotos,  and  on  account  of  his  low 
origin,  he  could  not.  But  in  recognition  of  his  services 
to  the  country  the  Emperor  appointed  him  Kwainbaku. 
Of  course  the  blue-blooded  nobles  were  scandalized 
that  an  upstart  of  so  low  an  origin  should  be  elevated 
to  this  exalted  position.  But  Hideyoshi  proved  that 
he  was  not  only  a general  of  consummate  genius,  but  an 
administrator  as  well.  He  repaired  and  improved  the 
capital  at  Kioto.,  by  erecting  great  buildings,  by  paving 


116 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


with  flagstones  the  bed  of  the  Kano,  that  flows  through 
the  city,  and  by  fortifying  Fushimi,  an  important  out- 
work. He  brought  everything  into  system  and  order 
under  the  central  government,  and  made  regulations  for 
the  survey  and  registry  of  lands  and  collection  of  taxes. 
Many  lands  had  been  opened  that  had  not  been  report- 
ed to  the  government.  Thenceforth  two-thirds  of  the 
crop  must  be  paid  to  the  state,  one-third  kept  by  the 


mimm 


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HLDEYOSHI  THE  GREAT. 


tiller.  Besides  the  great  castle  which  he  built  at 
Osaka,  he  improved  the  town  by  opening  canals  and 
building  bridges,  in  this  way  laying  the  foundations  of 
the  commercial  career  which  it  holds  to  this  day.  He 
erected  a great  mansion  at  Kioto  for  his  own  residence. 
Requesting  the  Emperor  to  visit  him,  a grand  reception 
was  arranged  for,  and  in  the  presence  of  all  the  nobles, 
princes,  and  feudal  Daimyos  Hidevoshi  had  them  swear 
allegiance  to  the  imperial  house.  At  his  suggestion 


WAR  IN  THE  KWANTO. 


117 


the  Emperor  ordered  a procession.  As  they  proceed  in 
great  pomp  and  splendor,  Iyeyasu  and  Xobuwo,  one  of 
Nobunaga’s  sons,  rode  in  front  of  the  imperial  ox 
coach,  while  Hideyoshi  with  twenty-seven  feudal  Dai- 
myos  or  lords  brought  up  the  rear.  It  was  a glorious  day 
for  the  man  with  the  gourd  flag,  the  boy  who  started 
his  career  by  currying  and  feeding  Nobunaga’s  horses. 

There  was  now  only  one  section  of  the  empire  that 
had  not  submitted  to  Hideyoshi’s  regime  — namely, 
the  Kwanto  provinces  under  Hojo  Ujimasu;  and  they 
must  be  brought  into  submission.  Supported  by  Iye- 
yasu, he  marched  with  an  overwhelming  army  against 
the  Hojo  stronghold  at  Odowara,  west  of  the  modern 
city  of  Yokahama.  Hojo’s  generals  one  after  another 
came  forth  and  submitted.  The  result  was  the  confis- 
cation of  the  eight  Kwanto  provinces  and  their  transfer 
to  Iyeyasu,  who  at  Hideyoshi’s  suggestion  set  up  his 
feudal  castle  and  capital  at  the  village  of  Yedo,  in  the 
plain  of  Kwanto,  at  the  head  of  Yedo  Bay.  This  vil- 
lage soon  rose  to  be  the  most  important  city  east  of 
Kioto,  for,  as  we  shall  see,  it  became  the  capital  of  a 
new  dynasty  of  Shoguns,  and  is  to-day  the  great  capi- 
tal of  the  new  empire.  In  this  campaign  against  the 
Kwanto  Hojos  an  incident  occurred  illustrating  Hi- 
deyoshi’s Napoleonic  cunning.  It  was  necessary  that 
many  horses  should  cross  the  Sea  of  Enshu,  which  was 
rough  at  that  season.  The  superstitious  boatmen  were 
afraid  to  transport  the  horses  in  their  boats,  because, 
as  they  said,  the  sea  god,  Ryugu,  had  a special  dislike 
for  horses.  Calling  the  boatmen  to  him,  he  told  them 
he  was  transporting  these  horses  at  the  command  of  the 
Emperor,  and  that  the  god  was  too  polite  to  interfere 
under  these  circumstances,  but  to  make  sure  that  all 
would  be  right  he  would  write  a letter  to  Ryugu  ex- 


118 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


plaining  the  matter  and  asking  him  to  protect  the  boats. 
Addressing  the  letter  to  “Mr.  Ryugu,”  he  threw  it  into 
the  sea,  whereupon  the  boatmen  seemed  satisfied  to  take 
the  horses  over. 

From  about  the  year  1590  peace  and  order  prevailed 
over  the  country,  a state  of  things  unknown  for  many 
generations.  But  the  active  and  ambitious  spirit  of 
Hideyoshi  had  long  been  revolving  plans  for  a war 
outside  of  Japan’s  borders,  the  conquest  of  Korea  and 
China.  Even  before  Nobunaga’s  death  he  had  revealed 
his  purpose  and  asked  for  the  revenues  of  Kiushiu  to 
be  given  to  him  for  one  year  in  order  to  enable  him  to 
prepare  for  such  a war.  “I  can  do  it,”  he  said,  “as 
easily  as  a man  rolls  a mat  under  his  arm.” 

As  to  justifying  the  invasion  of  Korea,  did  not  Jingo 
subdue  that  land,  making  it  tributary  to  Japan?  and 
had  not  the  Chinese  and  Tartars,  supported  always  by 
the  Koreans,  attempted  to  invade  and  subdue  Japan 
without  any  provocation?  and  had  not  Korea  neg- 
lected to  bring  tribute  for  many  generations?  In  con- 
sequence of  misrule  and  civil  wars  it  had  been  impossi- 
ble to  enforce  tribute  from  Korea  or  punish  China  for 
her  unprovoked  attack  upon  Japan.  But  now  it  was  quite 
different.  Hideyoshi’s  scheme  was  to  bring  the  Ko- 
reans into  subjection  first,  and  then  use  Korea  as  a base 
of  operations  against  China,  and  finally  to  unite  these 
three  nations  under  the  rule  of  Japan.  He  had  proba- 
bly learned  that  China  had  been  easily  conquered  more 
than  once  by  foreign  invaders.  He  therefore  sent  the 
Warden  of  Tsushima  Island,  lying  in  the  Japan  Sea 
halfway  between  the  two  coasts,  to  invite  the  king  of 
Korea  to  an  audience  with  the  Japanese  Emperor.  He 
determined  to  insist  upon  presents  being  sent  to  Japan 
by  both  China  and  Korea,  and  to  demand  of  the  Ko- 


HIDEYOSHI  S TROOPS  IN  KOREA. 


119 


reans  that  they  should  interest  themselves  in  gaining 
China’s  consent;  and  if  they  refused,  he  would  speedily 
invade  their  country  and  compel  them  to  march  in  the 
vanguard  against  China.  The  Koreans  refused.  The 
Emperor  approving,  Hideyoshi  took  the  title  of  Taiko, 
and  ordered  all  the  provinces  to  furnish  troops,  and 
those  along  the  coast  next  to  Korea  to  furnish  ships. 
These  preparations  being  completed  (1592),  an  army  of 
one  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  soldiers  divided  into 
eight  corps,  and  nine  thousand  sailors  for  the  fleet, 
made  rendezvous  at  Karatsu,  looking  toward  Korea.  In 
April  Hideyoshi,  having  worshiped  at  the  tombs  of 
Chuai  and  Jingo  on  the  way,  arrived  and  sent  forth  the 
great  expedition.  The  ships  seemed  to  cover  the  whole 
sea,  and  when  they  hove  in  sight  of  Korean  shores  the 
natives  there  were  filled  with  fear. 

Konishi,  a Christian  general  commanding  a corps 
composed  chiefly  of  Christians,  led  the  advance  voyage. 
The  first  to  reach  Korea,  he  landed  at  Fusan,  where  the 
Japanese  had  from  early  times  a trading  port  and  set- 
tlement, and  there  captured  the  Korean  general.  Then 
Kato,  commanding  another  corps  not  Christians,  landed. 
Between  these  two  generals  some  bad  feeling  existed, 
because  the  one  was  a Christian  and  the  other  hated  the 
Christians.  Pushing  with  great  vigor  into  the  country, 
but  along  different  lines  of  march,  for  a time  both  ar- 
mies swept  everything  before  them.  The  Koreans  re- 
treated northward,  and  sent  to  China  begging  for  help. 
After  much  delay  China  did  send  a few  troops;  but  the 
Japanese  had  to  contend  with  other  enemies — namely,  a 
rigorous  winter,  and  hunger.  In  fact, they  were  com- 
pelled to  retreat  without  finishing  the  war.  Afterwards, 
however,  Hideyoshi  recruited  his  army,  gathered  fresh 
supplies,  and  ordered  a renewal  of  the  war,  sending  the 


120 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


same  generals  (Kato,  the  Christian  hater,  and  Konishi, 
the  Christian)  hack  to  Korea.  At  first  the  Japanese 
met  with  reverses;  hut  notwithstanding  the  suffering 
from  frost-bitten  hands  and  feet,  and  the  scarcity  of 
food  during  a long  siege,  the  Japanese,  being  reen- 
forced, attacked  the  Chinese,  completely  routing  them 
in  two  successive  heavy  engagements.  It  was  in  one  of 
these  battles,  in  the  summer  of  1598,  that  38,700  heads 
of  Chinese  and  Koreans  were  taken.  After  the  ears 
and  noses  were  cut  off,  the  heads  were  buried  in  a heap. 
The  ears  and  noses,  pickled  in  tubs,  were  sent  back  to 
Kioto,  and  there  buried  under  a mound  with  a stone 
monument,  upon  which  is  inscribed  “Mimizuka”  (ear 
mound).  It  may  be  seen  standing  to  this  day. 

But  Hideyoshi,  the  Taiko,  never  conquered  Korea, 
much  less  China.  Unfortunately,  in  his  older  years 
he  had  become  sensual,  and  was  ruining  himself  with 
his  vices.  He  died  in  September,  1598,  when  his  ar- 
mies were  again  gaining  victories  in  Korea.  For  some 
time  being  ill,  he  had  become  anxious  about  his  armies, 
and  as  death  approached  gave  orders  for  their  recall. 
At  the  last,  opening  his  eyes,  he  exclaimed:  “Let  not 
the  spirits  of  the  one  hundred  thousand  troops  I have 
sent  to  Korea  become  disembodied  in  a foreign  land.” 
Thus  ended  an  unfortunate  chapter  in  Japanese  history, 
and  thus  closed  the  career  of  a man  who  had  the  milita- 
ry genius,  a capacity  for  remarkable  administration, 
and  a power  of  inspiring  the  love  of  his  soldiers  equal 
to  that  of  Napoleon.  Like  Napoleon,  he  had  unbridled 
ambition,  aiid  besides  in  his  later  years  of  wealth  and 
power  was  given  up  to  licentious  habits.  The  imme- 
diate results  of  his  Korean  wars  were  a few  tubs  of 
pickled  ears  and  noses,  and  a few  bands  of  Korean  pot- 
ters brought  over  and  settled  in  Satsuma,  whence  comes 


PERSECUTION  OF  THE  CHRISTIANS. 


121 


the  famous  Satsuma  ware.  Iyeyasu,  Ilideyoshi’s  suc- 
cessor, never  really  approved  of  the  Korean  war,  and 
did  not  renew  it.  A few  years  later  Korea  sent  an  en- 
voy bringing  presents  and  suing  for  peace. 

At  first  Hideyoshi’s  policy  toward  the  Christians  was 
a friendly  one,  but  gradually  he  became  suspicious  of 
them  and  became  their  persecutor.  Some  of  the  Chris- 
tian priests,  especially  the  Spanish  Franciscans,  lately 
come  from  the  Philippines,  were  so  arrogant  and  vio- 
lent that  he  ordered  them  to  leave  Japan,  and  prohib- 
ited the  people  from  becoming  Christians.  He  even  or- 
dered the  Nambanji  church  in  Kioto  to  be  destroyed. 
The  priests,  however,  carried  on  their  work  in  private 
houses,  and  the  native  converts  kept  on  worshiping  in 
secret,  with  the  result  of  ten  thousand  converts  being 
made  yearly  for  several  years.  It  is  said,  too,  that  the 
quarrels  between  the  Jesuits  and  the  Franciscans,  and 
their  mutual  accusations,  aroused  Hideyoshi’s  suspi- 
cions. These  suspicions  were  confirmed  by  the  gossip 
of  a Portuguese  sea  captain,  reported  to  him.  “The 
king,  my  master,”  said  the  captain,  “begins  by  sending 
priests,  who  win  the  people  first;  then  he  dispatches 
troops  to  join  the  native  Christians,  and  the  conquest  of 
the  country  is  easy.”  And  this  was  the  explanation  of 
the  vast  dominions  of  Portugal’s  king,  as  he  exhibited  a 
map  of  the  same.  This  seemed  to  agree  with  what  Hi- 
deyoshi  had  heard  about  the  Portuguese  in  the  East 
Indies  and  China,  and  he  resolved  to  make  such  a thing 
impossible  in  Japan.  Therefore  he  ordered  all  foreign 
teachers  of  religion  to  depart  in  twenty  days,  or  else  be 
put  to  death.  In  consequence  of  this  edict,  in  1593 
A.D.,  six  Franciscans  and  three  Jesuits  were  arrested  in 
Osaka  and  Kioto,  taken  to  Nagasaki,  and  burned  to 
death.  This  was  the  first  martyrdom  of  Roman  Catli- 


122 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


olic  missionaries  by  governmental  edict.  Portuguese 
merchants  might  still  trade  in  Japan  until  further  or- 
ders, but  must  not,  on  pain  of  having  their  ships  and 
goods  seized,  bring  over  any  foreign  religions. 

The  Roman  Catholics,  however,  tell  a different  story. 
They  say  the  reason  why  Hideyoshi  got  angry  with  the 
Christians  was  that  when  he  sought  to  have  certain 
beautiful  Japanese  maidens  brought  into  his  harem 
they  positively  refused  because  they  were  Christians. 
This  he  considered  an  affront  to  his  authority  and  high 
position,  whereas  they  ought  to  have  considered  it  an 
honor  bestowed  upon  them.  The  foreign  teachers  and 
priests  he  rightly  considered  responsible  for  these  new 
morals  among  Japanese  women,  and  hence  resolved  to 
be  rid  of  them. 

VI.  Progress  of  Civilization  During  This 
Period. 

Four  hundred  years  is  a long  space,  even  in  the  life 
of  a nation.  During  this  long  period  the  intervals  of 
peace  were  short;  and,  while  we  are  no  advocate  of 
war,  yet  it  is  a historical  fact  that  a period  of  war  and 
of  struggle  is  often  a period  of  invention,  discovery,  or 
revolution  that  tells  upon  the  nation’s  future. 

As  to  arts  and  industries,  the  highest  achievement 
was  probably  in  the  making  of  swords  and  armor,  it 
being  natural  during  so  many  wars  that  this  line  of  art 
should  receive  special  attention.  Indeed,  sword  making 
and  mounting  was  one  of  the  fine  arts.  The  occupation 
of  a sword  smith  was  an  honorable  profession,  the  mem- 
bers of  which  were  often  of  gentle  blood.  Among  the 
upper  classes,  where  trade  and  manual  labor  were  de- 
spised, it  is  not  strange  that  this  one  occupation  should 
be  an  exception,  for  the  soldier’s  career  and  his  martial 


SWORD  MAKING. 


123 


exploits  were  held  in  the  very  highest  honor.  To  be  a 
Samurai,  the  retainer  of  a military  chieftain,  was  to  be  an 
honorable  man  of  the  ruling  class;  while  to  be  a chonin, 
a town  man  or  trader,  was  to  be  a low  man.  The  story 
is  that  the  ex-Emperor  Gotoba  not  only  gathered  the 
most  famous  sword  smiths  about  him,  but  that  he  in- 
dulged his  fancy  by  making  swords  himself.  For  a long- 
time Kioto  was  the  home  of  the  noted  sword  makers, 
but  afterwards  the  new  military  capital,  Kamakura,  at- 
tracted them.  There  resided  the  prince  of  sword  mak- 
ers, Masamune,  and  the  noted  Myochin  family,  and  many 
others  whose  swords  and  armor  are  truly  wonders  of 
skill  and  beauty.  Like  everything  else,  the  profession 
of  sWord  smith  was  handed  down  in  families  from  fa- 
ther to  son.  The  traditions  of  the  craft  were  many  and 
curious.  During  the  critical  hour  when  the  steel  edge 
is  being  forged  into  the  body  of  the  iron  blade  it  was 
the  custom  to  put  on  the  robes  and  cap  of  the  court  no- 
ble, and  close  the  doors  in  order  to  labor  in  secrecy  and 
freedom  from  interruption,  the  half  gloom  adding  to 
the  mystery  of  the  operation.  Sometimes,  indeed,  the 
occasion  was  invested  with  religious  sanctity,  and  a 
tassel  cord  of  straw,  such  as  are  hung  before  Shinto 
shrines,  was  suspended  between  two  bamboo  poles  in  the 
forge,  thus  converting  it  for  the  time  into  a sacred  al- 
tar. Those  swords  were  famous  for  temper  and  keen 
edge.  A newly  forged  sword,  especially  if  made  for 
a Shogun,  must  be  tested  upon  human  bodies,  usual- 
ly those  of  criminals,  before  being  accepted;  and  it  is 
said  that  a sword  of  best  workmanship  must  cut  through 
three  bodies  at  one  stroke.  Dogs  and  beggars  lying  on 
the  roadside  were  not  unfrequently  used  for  proving  the 
edge  of  a Samurai’s  sword. 

As  regards  architecture,  it  is  to  be  noted  that,  in  spite 


124  japan:  country,  court,  people:. 

of  the  continued  wars,  many  great  buildings  were  erected. 
For  example,  the  Ktnkakuji  (golden  pavilion),  the  man- 
sion of  an  ex-Shogun,  upon  North  Mountain,  overlook- 
ing Kioto,  was  truly  magnificent.  The  materials  of 
timber  and  stone  being  of  the  finest  quality,  the  columns, 


PAGODA  AT  NAGOYA. 

doors,  alcoves,  and  ceilings  were  decorated  with  gold 
dust  on  lacquer,  and  it  stands  to-day,  an  interesting 
relic  of  Kioto.  Another  celebrated  building  was  Gin- 
kakuji  (silver  pavilion),  on  East  Mountain,  at  Kioto,  the 


OTHER  ARTS. 


125 


columns,  ceilings,  etc.,  of  this  mansion  being  covered 
with  dust  of  silver. 

The  Ashikaga  Shoguns  of  this  period  were  strong  be- 
lievers in  Buddhism,  and  the  same  ex-Shogun  who  built 
the  “golden  pavilion”  for  his  own  residence  erected  a 
Buddhist  temple  of  unparalleled  magnificence  at  Kioto. 
Kioto,  however,  was  for  a good  while  eclipsed  by  the 
military  capital,  Kamakura,  in  architectural  wealth,  and 
particularly  after  Kioto  became  the  scene  of  so  many 
battles,  and  the  imperial  palace,  great  temples,  and 
mansions  of  nobles  were  burned  to  the  ground.  About 
the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  once-splendid  city 
was  reduced  to  desolation,  and  the  Emperors  were  una- 
ble to  restore  the  city  for  a long  time.  Of  course  the 
building  of  so  many  great  castles  all  over  the  land  by 
lords  and  Daimyos  encouraged  the  quarrying  of  heavy 
stones  and  the  erection  of  massive  walls.  We  have 
nothing  in  America  that  corresponds  to  the  Cyclopean 
walls  surrounding  Japanese  castles.  Built  upon  some 
commanding  mount,  these  white  castles,  visible  from 
afar,  add  much  to  the  picturesque  landscape,  and  always 
attract  the  eye  of  travelers. 

The  arts  of  painting,  pottery,  lacquering,  and  sculp- 
ture were  cultivated  and  much  patronized  by  the  luxu- 
rious nobles;  even  the  military  nobility,  who  at  first 
practiced  severer  habits  of  living,  became  addicted  to 
luxuries  and  arts,  surrounding  themselves  in  their  man- 
sions with  the  costliest  paintings,  porcelains,  and  lac- 
quer work.  It  was  in  this  period  that  translucent  por- 
celain was  first  made  in  Japan,  the  art  having  been 
brought  from  China.  The  Cha-no-yu  (tea  ceremonial), 
which  had  its  origin  under  the  Ashikagas,  greatly  stim- 
ulated the  production  of  fine  porcelain  wares.  The  . art 
of  lacquering  also  made  great  progress  in  this  period. 


126 


JAPAN : COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


Further  treatment  of  Japanese  arts  is  reserved  for  a later 
chapter.  Japanese  authors  (“History  of  the  Empire 
Japan”)  say:  “The  blackest  era  of  Japanese  history 
so  far  as  concerned  the  preservation  of  public  peace  and 
security  of  life  and  property  was  nevertheless  a time  of 
marked  artistic  development.”  But  their  further  state- 
ment that  in  this  respect  Japanese  history  is  different 
from  that  of  the  mediaeval  period  in  European  history 
cannot  be  accepted  as  correct,  for  it  was  in  the  mediaeval 
period  that  those  magnificent  cathedrals  and  abbeys 
arose  which  are  monuments  of  grandeur  and  beauty. 

In  education  little  progress  was  made.  The  military 
class,  which  was  the  ruling  class,  found  little  time  or 
inclination  in  those  stirring  days  for  study  of  books. 
Nevertheless  there  was  developed  a school  of  literature 
distinctly  Japanese.  The  Chinese  learning  was  for  the 
most  part  confined  to  the  priests  and  a, few  court  nobles 
not  yet  swept  into  the  whirlpool  of  luxury  and  pleasure. 
Now  and  then  a Shogun  or  Emperor  patronized  letters 
and  schools.  The  geographical  knowledge  had  without 
doubt  considerable  expansion  during  this  period.  For- 
eign intercourse,  first  at  the  time  of  Kublai  Khan’s  in- 
vasion, and  then  at  the  coming  of  the  Portuguese  and 
Spaniards  with  their  strange  goods  and  guns,  gave  occa- 
sion for  inquiry  about  countries  and  people  far  across 
the  seas.  It  is  a benefit  to  a people  to  get  a wider  geo- 
graphical horizon.  It  was  in  this  unsettled  period  that 
so  many  Japanese  on  the  coasts  took  to  a life  of  piracy; 
not  being  able  to  live  in  safety  at  home,  they  turned  sea 
robbers.  And  these  forays  upon  the  coasts  and  coasting 
vessels  of  Korea  and  China  added  to  their  knowledge  of 
the  seaports  and  the  trade  of  those  countries,  and  led 
them  to  establish  trading  settlements  in  Macao,  south 
coast  of  China,  Siam,  Anam,  the  Philippines,  Malacca. 


EDUCATION. 


127 


In  this  period  they  made  conquests  of  the  Riukiu  islands. 
It  appears  that  a little  later  than  this  Japanese  vessels 
made  voyages  even  to  Spanish- American  ports  on  our 
Pacific  coast,  and  to  India,  Borneo,  and  Java. 

Enough  was  said  in  a foregoing  section  about  the  op- 
pressions and  robberies  inflicted  upon  the  peasantry  of 
the  farming  districts.  It  could  not  have  been  a time  of 
prosperity  to  them.  When  the  farmers  groan  the  whole 
nation  feels  it. 


TOKUGAWA  CREST, 


CHAPTER  V. 


FEUDALISM  SETTLED  UNDER  THE  TOKUGAWA 
SHOGUNS—  YEDO  THE  NEW  MILITARY  CAPITAL 
. —THE  LAST  OF  THE  CHRISTIANS  ( 1603-1638 ). 

I.  Founding  of  the  Tokugawa  Dynasty. 

Of  the  three  great  men,  Iyeyasu,  the  third  one,  now 
conies  to  the  forefront  in  Japanese  affairs.  Nobunaga 
cleared  the  ground  for  his  great  successor,  Hideyoshi, 
who  in  turn  laid  the  foundations  upon  which  the  wise 
Iyeyasu  settled  and  unified  feudalism,  making  it  firm 
and  unchangeable  for  two  hundred  and  fifty  years,  As 
Hideyoshi  saw  his  death  approaching  he  said  to  Iyeya- 
su: “I  foresee  great  wars  after  my  death;  I know  there 
is  no  one  but  you  who  can  keep  the  country  quiet.  I 
therefore  bequeath  to  you  the  whole  country. 

M y son  Hideyori  is  still  young,  and  I beg  you  to  look 
after  him;  and  when  he  is  grown  up  I leave  it  to  you 
to  decide  whether  or  not  he  is  to  be  my  successor.” 
Iyeyasu,  who  traced  his  descent  straight  back  to  a hero 
of  the  famous  Minamoto  clan,  had  already  received 
eight  provinces  in  the  Kwanto  and  set  up  his  capital  at 
Yedo.  He  had  fought  under  Xobunaga,  at  first  against 
Hideyoshi  and  then  under  him,  and  is  now  to  be  his  suc- 
cessor, and  the  founder  of  a new  line  of  Shoguns  known 
in  history  as  the  Tokugawas.  After  Hideyoshi’s  death 
certain  proud  and  powerful  Daimyos,  as  Mori,  Choshu, 
and  Satsuma  in  South  and  Southwestern  Japan,  unwill- 
ing to  submit  to  the  new  ruler  of  the  whole  country, 
formed  a league  against  Iyeyasu  and  his  Eastern  vas- 
(128) 


BATTLE  OF  SEKIGAHAKA. 


129 


sals.  According  to  the-  custom  in  trying  times,  the 
league  or  covenant  was  sealed  with  a drop  of  blood 
from  the  middle  finger  pressed  with  the  thumb  nail 
upon  their  respective  signatures.  Their  first  hostile 
act  was  to  seize  Fushimi,  a suburb  at  Kioto,  from 
which  Iyeyasu  was  temporarily  absent  counseling  with 
his  vassal  barons  in  the  Kwanto.  He  was  watching, 
and  soon  saw  that  once  more  the  sword  of  civil  war 
must  be  drawn,  and  that  it  would  be  a terrible  conflict. 
As  the  armies  of  the  southern  league  began  to  assemble 
around  Osaka,  he  was  collecting  his  at  Yedo.  March- 
ing thence  with  seventy-five  thousand  soldiers,  he  met 
the  armies  of  the  league,  numbering  one  hundred  and 
eighty  thousand,  and  joined  battle  in  October,  1600 
A.D.,  at  the  village  of  Sekigahara,  near  Lake  Biwa. 
This  battle  was  the  bloodiest  and  most  momentous  ever 
fought  in  Japanese  history,  and  deserves  to  be  recorded 
among  the  decisive  battles  of  the  world.  On  one  side 
it  was  the  old  and  proud  Southerners  leagued  against 
the  new  and  rough  eastern  sections.  The  Kwanto,  with 
Yedo  as  the  new  capital,  rescued  only  a few  centuries 
prievious  from  the  barbarous  Ainus,  was  still  rough  and 
illy  civilized  compared  to  the  ancient  provinces  of  Sat- 
suma  and  Choshii.  Again,  those  Southern  confeder- 
ates were  fighting  for  the  principle  of  local  independ- 
ence, “State’s  rights,”  as  it  were,  though  they  claimed 
to  be  doing  service  for  Hideyori,  son  of  Taiko  sama,* 
under  whom  they  had  been  vassals  and  generals.  Still 
further,  on  this  side  were  the  Christian  Gen.  Konishi 
and  his  soldiers,  who  had  done  such  hard  fighting  in 
Korea;  and  therefore  it  was  with  this  side  that  the 


*Hideyoshi  is  often  spoken  of  in  history  as  the  Taiko,  or 
Taiko  sama. 

9 


130 


.tapan:  country,  court,  people. 


Portuguese  missionaries  naturally  sympathized.  The 
native  Christians  also  generally  sided  with  the  confeder- 
ates. On  the  other  side,  Iyeyasu  stood  for  the  less-civ- 
ilized East,  for  centralized  government  and  for  anti- 
Christian  paganism. 

Sekigahara,  where  the  deadly  struggle  between  the 
Southerners  and  the  Easterners  took  place,  is  an  open 
rolling  plain  between  the  east  shores  of  Lake  Biwa  and 
the  range  of  hills  rising  a little  farther  eastward.  The 
great  national  road,  Nakasendo,  passes  right  through 
it,  and  here  enters  the  northwestern  road  coming  out 
of  Echizen  Province.  Near  the  eastern  side  of  the 
lake,  situated  on  a hill,  was  the  seat  of  the  Portuguese 
missionaries,  easily  visible  from  the  battlefield.  The 
morning  of  the  battle  the  confederate  armies  moved 
into  position  before  daylight,  followed  quickly  by  Iye- 
yasu’s.  He  remarked  to  his  followers:  “The  enemy 
has  fallen  into  my  hands.”  But  a heavy  morning  fog 
fell  upon  the  plain,  making  it  impossible  for  either  side 
to  know  just  where  the  enemy  was,  and  so  neither  side 
dared  to  make  the  attack  till  the  fog  lifted.  On  the 
side  of  the  confederates  were  heavy  odds  in  numbers, 
but  they  lacked  the  unity  of  one  supreme  commander 
and  purpose  in  action;  it  was  a league  of  different 
armies.  Iyeyasu’s  forces  had  one  commander,  one  dis- 
cipline and  purpose.  His  banner  was  a golden  fan  on 
a white  field  embroidered  with  hollyhocks.  When  the 
fog  lifted  at  8 a.m.,  and  the  armies  stood  over  against 
each  other  ready  for  the  awful  conflict,  the  drums  and 
conches  solmded  from  the  centers  the  signal  for  battle. 
Cannons  and  guns  were  used  in  the  fighting,  but  the 
most  effective  slaughtering  was  done  by  swords  and 
spears.  Effective  slaughtering  is  an  unpleasant  phrase, 
but  that  is  just  what  a battle  means,  either  to  kill,  cap- 


BATTLE  OF  SEKIGAHARA. 


131 


ture,  or  rout  the  enemy.  At  the  first  onslaught  the 
Easterners  wavered  and  till  twelve  o’clock  it  was 
doubtful  which  side  would  win.  About  twelve,  the 
tide  turned,  one  of  the  generals  with  his  followers  de- 
serted to  Iyeyasu’s  side,  and  finally  the  confederates 
broke  and  by  evening  were  utterly  routed.  But  they  had 
fought  with  desperate  bravery,  and  forty  thousand,  ac- 
cording to  Japanese  historians,  fell  upon  the  dust,  never 
to  rise  again.  Multitudes  of  the  wounded,  fearing  cap- 
ture, committed  harci  Jriri  to  prevent  that  disgrace. 
After  the  battle,  as  was  the  custom,  the  victorious  side 
gathered  into  the  center  of  the  battlefield,  each  soldier 
bringing  the  heads  cut  off,  and  the  prisoners,  to  be 
counted.  The  soldiers  who  could  show  the  most  heads 
or  prisoners  were,  of  course,  the  heroes  of  the  day.  A 
mound  named’ “Head  Pile”  still  stands  near  the  road 
to  mark  the  place  where  the  confederates  were  buried, 
and  a monument  stands  upon  the  mound. 

“It  was  fortunate,”  says  Murray,  “that  Iyeyasu,  the 
victorious  general,  knew  how  to  make  sure  the  fruits  of 
such  a victory.  During  the  fighting  he  had  not  worn 
his  hemlet;  but  as  soon  as  the  victory  was  won  ordered 
it,  and  while  putting  it  on  he  repeated  to  those  around 
him  the  proverb:  ‘After  victory  tighten  your  helmet 
strings.’” 

It  was  fortunate,  too,  that  the  victor  was  a man  of 
moderation  and  of  peaceable  disposition.  To  be  sure, 
several  of  the  generals  were  captured  and  executed, 
among  whom  were  the  Christians  Konishi  and  Otai. 
Being  Christians,  these  two  generals  were  under  dark- 
er suspicion  of  being  allies  of  the  Portuguese  Jesuits 
in  some  secret  plan  against  the  Japanese  government. 
Iyeyasu  exercised  what  was  then  considered  his  un- 
doubted right,  that  of  portioning  out  the  fief  lands  and 


132 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


daimiates  to  his  own  faithful  vassals,  and  he  provided 
well  for  them,  awarding  them  one  hundred  and  fifty 
daimiates  out  of  three  hundred  and  sixty-three.  But 
he  spared  many  of  the  old  and  honorable  Daimyos,  es- 
pecially the  great  Lords  of  Mori,  Satsuma,  and  Choshu, 
whom  he  treated  with  consideration  after  they  came 
forward  and  pledged  allegiance  to  him.  As  before 
said,  he  was  in  fact  the  founder  of  a new  dynasty  of 


Shoguns,  and  received  that  title  in  1603.  The  name 
Tokugawa  comes  from  the  village  where  he  was  born. 
Founder  of  a new  line  of  rulers,  he  was  the  builder  of 
a new  and  great  capital  city,  Yedo  (now  called  Tokyo, 
and  greater  to-day  than  ever),  and  inaugurated  a long 
period  of  peace  and  unity  after  so  many  centuries  of 
civil  wars.  He  was  a man  of  fine  presence,  had  a re- 
markable knowledge  of  men,  was  an  able  general,  a 
wise  legislator  and  administrator,  and  what  put  him 


THE  TOKUGAWA  ERA  DESCRIBED. 


133 


far  above  Nobunaga  and  Hideyoshi  were  his  gentleness 
and  mercy.  Buried  in  great  pomp  in  1616,  in  a splen- 
did temple  tomb,  situated  in  the  midst  of  a sacred 
grove  of  towering  cryptomerias  at  Nikko,  he  received 
from  the  Mikado  posthumous  rank  among  the  gods, 
with  the  title,  Sho-ichi-i-Tosho-Dai-Gongen — i.  e.,  Su- 
preme Highness,  Light  of  the  East-Great  Incarnation 
of  Buddha.  Pretty  heavy  titles,  think  you? 

II.  The  Tokugawa  Era  Described. 

1.  It  was  a period  of  peace.  With  China  and  Korea 
peace  had  been  resumed.  At  home,  barring  the  perse- 
cution of  the  Christians  and  their  final  massacre  at 
Shimabara,  profound  peace  had  been  established. 
Waiting  patiently  for  his  defeated  enemies  to  come 
and  acknowledge  him  as  the  vassal  lord  of  the  whole 

O 

country,  when  they  came  he  granted  pardon,  and  Japan 
had  peace  in  all  her  borders. 

2.  It  was  an  era  of  unification.  For  one  thousand 
years  the  frequent  civil  wars  had  prevented  the  grow- 
ing together  of  the  political  sections  and  elements  of 
society  into  one  consistent  whole.  Xow  these  ele- 
ments crystallize  under  one  permanent  system  of  gov- 
ernment and  fixed  order  of  society.  W e do  not  mean 
that  during  the  long  period  of  peace  there  was  the 
molding  of  a national  life  and  unity  such  as  we  know, 
for  it  is  not  in  feudal  paganism  to  realize  the  highest 
national  life,  but  it  was  superior  to  anything  they  had 
known  before.  It  was  a collection  of  clans  all  under  a 
strong,  moderate,  and  permanently  established  central 
government,  represented  by  the  Shogun.  Each  Daimyo 
of  the  clan  paid  tribute  and  allegiance  to  the  central  Sho- 
gun at  Yedo,  and  each  in  turn  required  the  vassalage  of 
his  own  clansmen.  Like  William  the  Conqueror  of  En- 


134 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


gland,  Iyeyasu  adopted  the  safe  policy  of  settling  his 
kinsmen  and  vassals  in  between  the  proud  and  strong 
Daimyos  whose  intrigues  might  be  feared.  He  knew 
how  completely  the  feudal  system  had  rooted  itself  in 
the  history  and  thinking  of  the  Japanese  people,  and 
with  far-sighted  statesmanship  he  built  on  the  old  foun- 
dations. He  knew  that  every  new  system  in  order  to 
be  permanent  must  be  an  outgrowth  of  something  that 
has  gone  before,  including  what  in  the  old  is  good  and 
lasting.  The  dual  form  of  government  had  existed  so 
long  and  the  Japanese  had  become  so  accustomed  to  it, 
that  Iyeyasu  determined  to  perfect  and  keep  it. 

Nominally  the  Emperor  is  the  head  of  the  nation  and 
the  fountain  of  rank,  titles,  etc. ; he  is  still  regarded  as 
of  divine  descent  and  the  father  of  the  people,  the  Son 
of  Heaven,  who  is  too  sacred  to  touch  with  his  hands 
the  common  affairs  of  administration  and  the  like. 
This  is  the  fiction  indulged  in  by  the  people  and  en- 
couraged by  the  Shoguns.  Really  the  Emperors  have 
become  effeminate,  lovers  of  pleasure,  incompetent  to 
rule,  and  are  consequently  kept  in  retirement  in  Kioto, 
shut  up  in  the  palace  with  courtiers  and  wives.  Prac- 
tically their  authority  is  small,  and  the  people  never 
see  their  faces. 

The  Shogun  at  Yedo,  while  professing  to  rule  in  the 
Emperor’s  name  and  receiving  his  title  of  Shogun  from 
him,  actually  holds  the  reins  of  full  power  in  his 
hands.  He  had  his  own  army  at  his  capital,  and  put 
his  own  vassal  Samurai  to  garrison  the  castle  at  Kioto 
and  Osaka,  and  in  the  region  of  the  Kwanto,  guarding 
the  approach  to  the  capital.  From  his  own  family 
and  clan  his  advisers  and  officers  of  the  central  govern- 
ment were  chosen. 

Iyeyasu’s  Legacy  or  Code  of  one  hundred  chapters 


THE  TOKUGAWA  ERA  DESCRIBED. 


135 


reflects  the  mild  and  peaceful  character  of  its  author. 
Each  chapter  treats  of  a single,  separate  subject. 
Sixteen  chapters  consist  of  moral  maxims  and  reflections, 
quoted  mostly  from  Confucius.  Fifty -five  chapters 
treat  of  politics  and  governmental  affairs.  Twenty- 
two  chapters  relate  to  matters  of  law.  Seven  chapters 
recite  incidents  and  experiences  in  his  own  life.  While 
the  Code  as  a whole  seems  intended  for  the  guidance  of 
the  military  or  ruling  class,  it  shows  that  he  is  also 
mindful  of  the  welfare  of  the  pople.  He  says:  “In 
my  youth  my  sole  aim  was  to  conquer  unfriendly  prov- 
inces and  take  revenge  upon  the  enemies  of  my  ances- 
tors; but  since  I have  come  to  understand  the  precept, 
‘To  assist  the  people  is  to  give  peace  to  the  empire,’  I 
have  followed  its  teaching.  Let  my  posterity  hold 
fast  this  principle,  and  any  one  turning  his  back  upon 
it  is  no  descendant  of  mine.  The  people  are  the  foun- 
dation of  the  empire.”  (See  Murray’s  “Japan,”  p.  202.) 

Such  democratic  doctrine  as  this  was  the  seed  from 
which  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  afterwards  a consti- 
tutional government  grew  and  ripened  into  actual  har- 
vest. 

3.  But  the  early  part  of  this  period  is  stained  with 
the  j>ersecution  and  destruction  of  the  Christians. 

Doubtless  our  readers  regard  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity by  St.  Xavier  and  his  Jesuit  brethren,  their 
conflicts  and  remarkable  success  for  the  first  fifty 
years,  as  the  most  interesting  chapter  in  all  this  story  of 
Japan.  We  now  come  to  a period  of  cruel  persecution. 
We  have  seen  on  a previous  page  how  Xobunaga  was 
favorable  to  the  Roman  Catholics  and  hostile  to  the 
Buddhists,  and  how  the  Catholics  not  only  in  Kiu- 
shiu  but  also  in  Yamaguchi,  Osaka,  Sakai,  and  Kioto 
built  churches  and  schools  and  exerted  a wide  influence. 


136 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


In  Nagasaki  ancl  Oita,  besides  churches,  they  had  hos- 
pitals and  asylums;  in  the  latter,  a nourishing  college. 
We  have  also  seen  how  Hideyoshi,  who  was  at  first  fa- 
vorable, became  suspicions  of  the  foreign  missionaries, 
the  Jesuits;  and  the  Franciscans,  and  began  to  persecute 
them. 

This  change  in  the  policy  of  the  rulers  of  Japan  to- 
ward the  Roman  Catholics  is  clearly  understood  when 
we  consider  a few  facts.  In  the  first  place,  the  Jesuit 
leaders  incited  the  native  converts  to  insult  the  gods  and 
deface  the  images  and  shrines  of  the  Buddhist  religion. 
Then  the  Franciscans,  who  had  come  from  the  Philip- 
pines, after  the  Jesuits,  quarreled  with  them,  and  their 
mutual  accusations  only  damaged  the  standing  of  both 
in  the  eyes  of  Japanese  rulers.  A little  later,  when  the 
Dutch  and  English  came  seeking  trade,  they  gave  Jesuits 
and  Franciscans  alike  a bad  name.  The  invasion  of  Hol- 
land by  Philip  II.,  Catholic  king  of  Spain  and  Portugal, 
had  embittered  the  Dutch  against  the  Roman  Catholics. 
The  English  too  had  cause  for  ill  will  toward  the  Cath- 
olics and  the  Spanish  Armada.  Besides,  Hideyoslii’s 
suspicions  were  strongly  aroused  by  the  gossip  of  a Por- 
tuguese sea  captain  who  was  reported  as  saying:  “The 
king,  my  master,  begins  by  sending  priests,  Avho  win 
over  the  people;  and  when  this  is  done  he  dispatches 
troops  to  join  the  native  Christians,  and  the  conquest 
is  easy  and  complete.”  He  now  determined  to  stop  the 
Jesuits  and  their  preaching  by  decreeing  (1587)  that  all 
foreign  priests  leave  the  country  in  twenty  days  or  die; 
but  though  ceasing  for  a while  in  public,  they  continued 
to  preach  in  private,  and  are  said  to  have  won  ten  thou- 
sand converts  in  one  year.  In  1596  six  Franciscans  and 
three  Jesuits,  and  seventeen  Japanese  Christians  were 
taken  to  Nagasaki  and  burned.  Persecution  began  to 


IYEYASU  AND  THE  ROMAN  CATHOLICS. 


137 


wax  worse  and  worse,  and  even  two  or  three  array  gen- 
erals w^ere  put  to  death  for  their  faith. 

During  Iyeyasu’s  first  years  of  rule  the  Christians 
were  not  disturbed.  He  was  too  busy  with  affairs  relat- 
ing to  the  establishment  of  his  own  power  throughout 
country.  Hence  the  bishops  and  priests  of  the  Catholic 
Church  seemed  at  first  to  have  good  hope  of  his  adopt- 
ing a policy  of  toleration.  In  160G  one  of  the  bishops 
was  received  in  audience  by  him  at  Kioto,  and  treated 
so  cordially  that  he  and  his  colaborers  were  much  en- 
couraged. But  there  were  three  things  at  least  that 
aroused  Iyeyasu’s  hostility  against  the  Roman  Catholics: 
(1)  The  loose  talk  of  that  Portuguese  sea  captain  had 
no  doubt  been  reported  to  him,  causing  him  to  fear  that 
Jesuits  and  Franciscans  alike  were  political  agents  of  the 
Portuguese  and  Spanish  rulers  or  the  pope  of  Rome, 
who  were  only  watching  their  opportunity  to  set  up 
their  rule  in  Japan.  (2)  Those  foreign  priests  had 
strangely  forgotten  that  when  they  were  paying  court 
to  Hideyoshi’s  son  they  were  placing  themselves  on  the 
side  of  lyeyasu’s  enemies,  who  had  fought  against  him 
at  Segigahara.  (3)  The  spirit  of  religious  toleration 
was  then  unknown.  There  was  no  such  thing  as  reli- 
gious liberty  at  that  time  even  in  Europe.  Xot  only 
had  France  been  torn  for  seventy  years  by  civil  wars, 
that  were  also  religious  wars  between  Catholics  and 
Protestants,  resulting  finally  in  the  expulsion  of  the 
Huguenots,  but  Germany  and  Austria  were  likewise  en- 
gaged in  religious  wars — the  Thirty  Years’  War;  and  in 
England  too,  even  the  Protestants  when  in  power  perse- 
cuted the  Roman  Catholics.  Hence  there  was  no  other 
course  open  to  Iyevasu  but  to  hold  to  the  Buddhist  re- 
ligion, and  oppose  with  his  might  the  Christians,  or  em- 
brace Christianitv  and  put  down  the  Buddhists.  Pre- 


138 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


cisely  so,  the  Jesuits  had  taught  the  Christian  princes  in 
Kiushiu  that  they  must  compel  their  subjects  to  renounce 
Buddhism  and  accept  Christian  baptism.  The  Prince 
of  Akashi,  in  Harima  Province,  had  bitterly  persecuted 
all  his  people  who  did  not  willingly  receive  baptism, 
and  Konishi,  the  brave  Christian  general,  who  had  re- 
ceived for  his  service  a part  of  Higo  Province,  had  forced 
baptism  upon  his  people,  and  confiscated  Buddhist  tem- 
ples and  lands.  Evidently,  then,  these  Jesuits  and  their 
Christian  princes  in  Japan  could  not  complain  when 
Iyeyasu  began  to  use  the  same  practice  of  persecution 
against  them  which  they  had  attempted  against  the 
Buddhists.  It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  historians  of  this  period  give  a different 
reason  for  the  persecution  of  the  Christians — that  is,  that 
because  certain  beautiful  Christian  maidens  refused  to 
obey  Hideyoshi’s  command  to  enter  his  harem,  he  be- 
came enraged  and  resolved  to  crush  out  the  Christian 
sect,  and  as  a good  excuse  for  putting  them  down  charged 
the  foreign  teachers  and  priests  with  plotting  against 
Japan’s  independence.  But  unfortunately  there  is  too 
much  evidence  of  political  intrigue  on  the  part  of  Jes- 
uits in  other  countries,  and  of  Romish  claims  for  the 
temporal  authority  of  the  pope.  In  view  of  the  above- 
mentioned  facts,  and  in  the  spirit  of  the  age,  Iyeyasu 
concluded  that  the  further  preaching  and  progress  of 
the  Christians  must  be  stopped.  He  issued  a proclama- 
tion in  1606  declaring  that  he  had  been  pained  to  learn 
that  many  had  embraced  the  Christian  faitli  contrary  to 
Ilideyoshi’s  decree.  He  declared  it  to  be  hurtful  to  the 
state  for  Japanese  to  become  Christians,  that  all  who 
had  done  so  must  change,  and  ordered  all  the  officers  of 
his  court  to  see  the  edict  strictly  enforced.  This  clear- 
ly shows  that  Iyeyasu  feared  the  Jesuits  as  dangerous  to 


PERSECUTION  OF  THE  CHRISTIANS. 


139 


the  country.  His  proclamation  did  not,  however,  deter 
them  from  publicly  celebrating  in  the  city  of  Nagasaki 
in  the  most  gorgeous  manner  the  canonization  of  Igna- 
tius Loyola,  the  founder  of  the  Jesuit  society.  The 
bishop,  arrayed  in  robes  and  followed  by  the  various  or- 
ders of  Jesuits,  Franciscans,  and  others,  made  a solemn 
procession  through  the  streets,  making  a public  display 
in  direct  violation  of  government  edicts.  This  led  to 
severer  measures.  It  is  said  that  Iyeyasu  discovered 
about  this  time  written  proof  of  a plot  on  the  part  of 
foreign  jjriests  and  native  converts  to  reduce  Japan  to 
subjugation  to  a foreign  power.  At  any  rate,  lie  deter- 
mined to  destroy  the  Christians  root  and  branch,  and 
accordingly  in  1614  issued  a decree  that  all  religious  or- 
ders, whether  European  or  Japanese,  should  leave  the 
country,  that  the  churches  should  be*  razed  to  the 
ground,  and  native  Christians  renounce  their  faith. 
Ten  thousand  troops  were  now  sent  to  Kiushiu,  where 
the  Christians  were  most  numerous,  to  execute  this  de- 
cree. Accordingly  three  hundred  persons,  including 
all  of  the  Jesuits,  except  twenty-seven,  who  hid  them- 
selves, were  banished,  and  the  most  vigorous  efforts 
were  made  to  compel  the  native  Christians  to  recant. 

The  persecutions  that  now  broke  upon  the  heads 
of  the  Christians  were  horrible  beyond  description.  In 
order  to  search  out  the  Christians  in  every  nook  ana 
hole,  so  as  to  kill  them  or  make  them  give  up  their  faith, 
a special  inquisition  was  organized  by  the  government. 
The  head  of  each  house  was  examined  and  required  to 
swear  that  no  Christian  was  with  him,  his  wife,  chil- 
dren, servants,  or  passing  traveler.  A reward  was  of- 
fered to  any  one  giving  information  about  the  Chris- 
tians and  priests.  In  connection  with  this  there  was  in- 
troduced a test,  the  e-fumi , or  trampling  upon  the  Chris- 


no 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


tian’s  cross.  A wooden  or  metal  cross  with  the  image 
of  Jesus  was  laid  down,  and  each  person  was  required  to 
trample  it  as  an  act  of  detestation  or  he  at  once  arrest- 
ed. Often  parents  would  make  their  little  children  do 
it  to  make  them  hate  the  “ Jesus  religion .” 


But  with  the  perse- 
up  an  enthusiasm  and 
overcome  by  the 
government.  Exiled 
returning  to  the  coun- 
martyrdom;  and 
Christians  were  being 
killed,  oth- 
came  f Or- 
el a r i n g 
tion  to  the 
Christ, 
from  the  country  to 
the  Philippines;  but 
to  meet  with  unquail- 
and  sword  of  their 
Seizing  the  Chris- 
wrapped  them  in 
throwing  them  in  a 
They  were  thrown 
grave,  soon  to  be 
burned,  beheaded 
hurled  from  the  steep 
cages  to  starve,  with 
to  tempt  them  to  re- 
Sometimes  they  were 


cutions  there  sprang 
a courage  hard  to 
powerful  arms  of  the 
priests  kept  secretly 
try,  as  if  desirous  of 
though  Japanese 
hounded,  punished, 
ers  boldly 
ward,  de- 
their  devo- 
cross  of 
Many  fled 
China,  Formosa,  and 
thousands  remained 
ing  heroism  the  fire 
cruel  persecutors, 
tians,  they  sometimes 
straw  sacks,  and, 
heap,  set  fire  to  them, 
alive  into  the*  open 
filled  up.  They  were 
with  the  sword,  or 
precipice;  put  into 
food  placed  outside 
nounce  the  faith, 
crucified  or  hanged, 
with  feet  fastened  to  a post  and  head  downward,  and 
left  in  that  condition  to  perish  or  recant.  All  accounts 
(Roman  Catholic,  Dutch,  Japanese)  witness  to  the 


THE  LAST  OF  THE  CHRISTIANS. 


141 


courageous  endurance  of  the  native  Christians  in 
Japan. 

It  was  in  1624  that  all  foreigners  except  the  Dutch 
and  Chinese  were  banished  from  the  country  by  the  Sho- 
gun Iyemidzu.  Fresh  persecutions  of  native  Christians, 
even  more  terrible  than  the  early  ones,  followed.  Every 
kind  of  torture  was  applied  that  barbarism  could  in- 
vent. During  all  these  years  of  horror  and  torture  the 
Christians  had  made  no  serious  resistance;  but  in  the 
year  1636  the  remnant  left  in  Kiushiu  were  driven,  it 
seems,  to  desperation,  and  determined  to  defend  them- 
selves. Accordingly  they  gathered  together  in  an  old 
abandoned  castle  of  Arima,  in  Kiushiu,  to  the  number 
of  thirty  thousand.  This  event  is  known  in  Japanese 
history  as  “the  war  of  Shimabara”  (Arima),  by  Ro- 
man Catholic  writers  as  4 4 the  massacre  of  Shimabara.  ” 
The  Shogun  sent  an  army  to  annihilate  these  peasants; 
but  only  after  a siege  of  three  months,  assisted,  it  is 
said,  by  cannon  which  the  Dutch  loaned  them,  did 
they  succeed  in  capturing  the  castle.  According  to 
Rein  (p.  308),  the  massacre  that  ensued  baffles  descrip- 
tion. All  the  besieged  Christians  were  doomed  to 
death.  Thousands  of  them  were  led  to  “Papenburg 
Rock,”  in  the  harbor  of  Nagasaki,  and  there  hurled 
from  the  steep  cliff  into  the  sea;  but  the  majority  of 
them  were  either  killed  in  the  fighting  within  the  castle 
or  immediately  afterwards.  To-day  the  tourist,  stand- 
ing on  the  ocean  steamship  as  it  enters  Nagasaki  harbor, 
will  have  pointed  out  to  him  that  “Papenburg  Rock,” 
whence  in  those  bloody  days  the  Christians  were  hurled 
to  death.  44  If  any  one  doubts  the  sincerity  and  fervor 
of  the  Christian  converts  of  to-day,  or  the  ability  of  the 
Japanese  to  embrace  a higher  form  of  faith,  or  their 
willingness  to  suffer  for  what  they  believe,  he  has  but 


142 


japan;  country,  court,  people. 


to  read  the  accounts,  in  English,  Dutch,  French,  Japa- 
nese, and  Latin,  of  various  witnesses  to  the  fortitude 
of  the  Japanese  Christians  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  annals  of  the  primitive  Church  furnish  no  instances 
of  sacrifice  or  heroic  constancy,  in  the  Coliseum  or  Ro- 
man arenas,  that  were  not  paralleled  on  the  dry  river 
beds  and  execution  grounds  of  Japan.” 

Finally,  believing  that  the  last  vestige  of  the  Chris- 
tian name  had  been  uprooted,  the  Japanese  government 
posted  on  the  notice  boards  all  over  the  empire  the  edict 
of  death  against  any  person  following  or  believing  in 
the  “corrupt  religion.”  And  the  word  went  forth  from 
the  Japanese  rulers  that:  “So  long  as  the  sun  shall 
warm  the  earth,  let  no  Christian  be.  so  bold  as  to  come 
to  Japan.  Let  all  know  that  the  King  of  Spain  himself, 
or  the  Christian’s  God,  or  the  great  God  of  all,  if  he 
violate  this  command,  shall  pay  for  it  witli  his  head.” 
And  yet  the  Christian  name  and  faith  among  the  Jap- 
anese were  not  entirely  wiped  out,  as  was  proved  two 
hundred  and  fifty  years  afterwards. 

III.  Following  Portuguese  Example,  Spaniards, 
Dutch,  and  English  Seek  Trade  with  Japan;  Fi- 
nally All  Are  Excluded  Except  Dutch. 

Whatever  may  be  the  truth  about  Columbus  having 
in  mind  Zipangu  (Japan)  when  he  set  sail  westward 
across  the  Atlantic,  it  is  certain  that  navigators  hoped 
to  find  a short  route  to  Asia  by  sailing  directly  west. 
The  English  Cabots  and  their  successors  hoped  to  find 
a passage  around  the  north  of  the  new  country  which 
Columbus  had  discovered;  and  it  is  said  that  even  La 
Salle,  the  French  explorer  in  what  is  now  Canada,  was 
seeking  an  overland  route  to  Asia!  And  yet,  for  a 
whole  century  after  the  discovery  of  a passage  to  India 


SPANIARDS  IN  JAPAN. 


143 


by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  (1497),  the  commerce  of  Eu- 
ropean nations  was  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the 
Portuguese.  Because  they  had  great  possessions  in  In- 
dia, and  a flourishing  trading  colony  at  Macao,  on  the 
coast  of  China,  they  got  ahead  of  all  the  other  European 
nations  and  kept  the  bulk  of  the  trade  of  Japan  for 
about  a century. 

Next  after  the  Portuguese  came  the  Spaniards.  But 
neither  did  the  Spanish  discovery  of  a passage  through 
the  Straits  of  Magellan,  and  the  settlement  of  Spaniards 
in  the  Philippines,  seriously  interfere  with  the  Portu- 
guese monopoly  of  trade  with  China  and  Japan.  With 
New  Spain  (Mexico  and  Southern  California)  in  their 
possession,  and  Manila  as  a trading  colony,  the  Span- 
iards ought  to  have  rivaled  the  Portuguese  in  these  far 
Eastern  ports.  And  they  did  make  an  effort.  Don  Ro- 
drigo, the  Governor  of  Manila,  made  a visit  (1608)  to 
the  Shogun,  in  his  palace  at  Suruga,  who  received  him 
in  great  state.  In  fact,  the  Shogun  offered  him  a ship 
of  European  model  in  which  to  sail  to  Mexico,  and  re- 
quested Philip,  King  of  Spain,  to  send  fifty  miners  from 
Mexico,  who,  as  he  had  heard,  were  more  skillful  in 
mining  and  smelting  silver  than  his  own  people.  A 
little  later  a special  embassador  was  sent  with  splendid 
presents,  asking  leave  for  the  Spaniards  to  build  ships 
from  the  forests  of  Japan  and  explore  her  coasts.  This 
was  agreed  to.  Already  the  Spaniards  were  sending 
ships  once  a year  from  Acapulco,  in  Mexico,  to  Manila. 
And  now  the  plan  is  to  make  Japan  the  third  corner  of 
the  great  oceanic  triangle  of  trade  on  the  Pacific — namely, 
Mexico,  the  Philippines,  and  Japan.  A grand  scheme 
that!  but  it  failed.  It  was  prophetic,  however;  for 
when  the  Americans  shall  have  cut  through  the  Nicara- 
guan or  Panama  canal,  then  the  triangle  of  ocean  trade 


144 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


will  be  completed:  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  Manila,  and  Ja- 
pan. But  the  poor  Spaniard  will  have  small  part  in  it. 

About  this  time  (1609)  the  first  Dutch  ship,  the  Red 
Lion,  arrived  at  llirado,  a little  northward  of  Nagasaki. 
Both  Portuguese  and  Spaniards  did  their  utmost  to 
persuade  the  Japanese  to  refuse  the  Dutch.  They  told 
the  Shogun  that  Dutch  ships  were  not  true  trading  ves- 
sels, but  were  sea  pirates.  The  Shogun,  having  heard 
of  the  wars  between  Spain  and  Holland,  understood  the 
situation,  and  replied:  “I  have  nothing  to  do  with  Eu- 
ropean quarrels.”  And  well  did  the  Portuguese  dread 
the  Dutch,  for  they  were  the  first  Europeans  to  break 
in  upon  the  Portuguese  monopoly  in  Eastern  seas.  The 
Dutch  out  of  the  Red  Lion  were  kindly  received  by  the 
old  Daimyo  at  Hirado,  and  a deputation  with  jjresents 
in  the  name  of  the  king  of  Holland  was  safely  conducted 
to  the  Shogun’s  court.  Having  got  permission  to  estab- 
lish a trading  post  for  their  ships  at  Hirado,  they  sailed 
for  Holland  bearing  a letter  from  the  Japanese  Shogun 
to  their  king.  The  salutation  of  that  letter  is  as  fol- 
lows: “I,  Emperor  and  King  of  Japan,  wish  to  the 
King  of  Holland,  who  hath  sent  from  so  far  countries 
to  visit  me,  greeting.”  The  Dutch  made  a second  voy- 
age (1611)  under  Capt.  Spex  and  secured  a permanent 
commercial  charter.  They  at  once  erected  a large 
warehouse  at  Hirado;  and  twenty-five  years  afterwards, 
when  the  Portuguese  were  expelled  from  the  country, 
they  transferred  their  trading  post  to  the  little  island 
of  Deshima,  at  Nagasaki.  Thither  a few  ships  came 
yearly,  and  here  stayed  a superintendent,  physician  and 
surgeon,  a naturalist,  and  a few  employees,  a dozen  men 
in  all.  The  Dutch  made  enormous  profits  by  this  trade. 

At  this  point  in  the  narrative  comes  the  strange  story 
of  William  Adams.  The  Dutch  merchants  at  Amster- 


DUTCH  SQUADRON  AND  WILL  ADAMS. 


145 


dam  were  more  powerful  and  richer  than  the  English 
merchants  at  London,  and  hence  took  into  their  service 
on  their  ships  enterprising  Englishmen.  William  Ad- 
ams was  one  of  them.  Born  in  England,  when  twelve 
years  of  age  he  began  a seafaring  life,  lie  shipped  as 
chief  pilot  of  a Dutch  squadron  of  live  ships  sailing  for 
India  (1598),  the  ships  being  named  Faith,  Hope,  Chari- 
ty, Fidelity,  and  Good  News.  Notwithstanding  their 
good  names,  it  was  an  ill-starred  fleet; 'for  of  the  live 
ships,  with  live  hundred  men,  only  the  Charity,  with 
twenty-four  men,  lived  through  the  voyage.  At  that 
time  there  were  no  mammoth  steamships,  with  powerful 
double  engines,  speeding  their  way  through  winds  and 
waves;  but  they  had  only  small  sailing  vessels,  illy  pre- 
pared for  such  long  ocean  voyages.  When  the  Charity 
reached  Japan  at  last,  only  Adams  and  live  or  six  of  the 
twenty-four  starving  men  were  able  to  walk.  Adams 
was  sent  to  Osaka,  where  he  met  the  Shogun  “in  a 
wonderfully  costly  house,”  who  treated  him  kindly  and 
asked  him  many  questions  about  his  country,  the  cause 
of  his  coming  to  Japan,  the  countries  England  had  wars 
with,  about  his  religion,  and  by  what  route  he  had  come. 
He  replied  that  the  English  had  long  sought  the  East 
Indies  and  desired  friendship  and  trade  with  all  kings; 
that  England  had  been  at  war  with  Portugal  and  Spain, 
but  was  at  peace  with  other  countries.  But  when  he 
pointed  out  on  a map  of  the  world  the  passage  through 
the  Strait  of  Magellan  the  Shogun  showed  plainly  he 
did  not  believe  him. 

Though  thus  kindly  received,  Adams  was  ordered 
back  to  prison,  where  he  was  confined  more  than  a 
month,  and  expected  every  day  to  be  taken  out  and  cru- 
cified according  to  the  custom  of  the  times,  for  the  per- 
secution of  the  Christians  had  begun.  But  although  the 
10 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


14:6 

Portuguese  did  their  utmost  against  Adams,  the  Shogun 
understood  their  motive,  and,  calling  for  Adams  again, 
he  held  a long  conversation  with  him,  questioned  him 
closely,  and  then,  to  his  surprise,  set  him  at  liberty. 
The  Shogun  had  discovered  Adams’s  knowledge  of  ship- 
builing  and  mathematics;  and  the  man’s  skill  stood  him 
in  good  stead,  for  he  soon  made  himself  very  useful  to 
the  Shogun  by  teaching  his  shipbuilders  how  to  build 
ships  after  the  European  model.  But  he  was  longing 
to  return  to  his  native  England  to  see  his  wife  and  chil- 
dren. The  Shogun  recognized  his  services  and  sought  to 
make  him  content  by  giving  him  “a  living  like  a lord- 
ship  in  England,  with  eighty  or  ninety  servants  or 
slaves.”  In  this  way  Adams  got  a thorough  knowledge 
of  the  rulers,  the  people,  and  the  country.  His  diary, 
which  has  been  published,  is  now  invaluable  as  a pic- 
ture of  those  times.  Though  living  like  a Japanese 
nobleman,  he  was  never  satisfied,  and  sent  a letter  by  a 
Dutch  ship  to  the  English  merchants  in  the  island  of 
Java,  and  through  them  to  his  wife  and  children  in  En- 
gland; he  also  urged  the  English  to  open  trade  in 
Japan. 

And  sure  enough  the  English  came  (1613)  under  Capt. 
John  Saris.  Saris  was  welcomed  at  Ilirado  by  the  same 
old  Daimyo  who  had  so  kindly  received  the  Dutch,  and 
he  begged  the  Daimyo  to  send  to  the  Shogun’s  capital 
for  Adams.  In  about  twenty  days  he  came,  and  what  a 
joyous  meeting  it  was,  especially  for  Adams!  After  all 
these  years  in  that  strange  land  to  see  once  more  his 
own  countrymen  direct  from  home! 

Conducted  by  his  fellow-countryman,  Capt.  Saris  and 
his  company  went  up  to  the  Shogun’s  court,  where, 
through  the  influence  of  Adams,  he  was  received  with 
marked  consideration.  Capt.  Saris  has  left  interesting 


ENGLISH  SEEKING  TRADE. 


147 


observations  of  wliat  he  saw  on  his  journey  from  Hiral- 
do  to  Suruga,  the  Shogun’s  seat.  Attended  by  seven- 
teen of  his  own  men,  including  merchants,  he  was  lib- 
erally furnished  by  the  old  Daimyo  with  a large  galley 
of  twenty-five  oars  to  the  side,  manned  with  sixty  men, 
the  galley  being  handsomely  fitted  out  with  waist- 
cloths  and  ensigns.  They  coasted  along  the  Kiushiu 
coast  to  the  entrance  of  the  Inland  Sea  (see  map),  through 
which  they  passed  till  they  reached  Osaka,  after  a voy- 
age of  twenty  days.  Osaka,  he  says,  had  many  timber 
bridges  across  a river  as  wide  as  the  Thames  at  London. 
Passing  up  a river  or  canal  from  Osaka  in  a small  boat, 
he  reached  Fushimi,  near  Kioto.  Here  he  saw  the  gar- 
rison of  three  thousand  soldiers  kept  to  guard  Kioto 
and  Osaka.  The  garrison  was  being  changed  and  he 
saw  their  array.  They  were  armed  with  firearms,  pikes, 
swords,  bows,  and  arrows,  and  marched  five  abreast 
without  music  or  colors.  He  was  impressed  with  their 
discipline  and  martial  bearing.  On  the  way  he  met  the 
general  in  the  rear  marching  in  great  state,  hunting  and 
hawking  all  the  way,  the  hawks  being  managed  after 
the  European  fashion.  From  Fushimi  they  traveled  on 
horse  to  Suruga.  It  was  the  Tokaido  road  from  Kioto 
to  Yedo,  well  built  and  level,  and  most  of  the  way  in 
sight  of  the  sea. 

For  Capt.  Saris  a palanquin  was  also  furnished  for 
changing  from  his  horse.  The  distance  along  the  road 
was  marked  every  three  miles  by  two  little  hillocks, 
one  on  each  side,  and  upon  each  hillock  was  planted  a 
fair  pine  tree  trimmed  in  round  shape.  The  great  road 
was  full  of  travelers,  many  villages  and  towns  were 
passed,  rivers  crossed  at  ferries,  and  temples  observed 
in  groves,  “the  pleasantest  place  for  delight  in  the 
whole  country.”  At  the  town  taverns  where  they 


148 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


lodged,  horses  and  men  were  changed  like  the  posts  in 
England.  The  people  ate  rice  and  fish  chiefly,  with 
wild  fowl,  and  plowed  with  horses  and  oxen,  and  raised 
good  red  wheat.  Besides  sake,  brewed  from  rice,  they 
drank  warm  water  with  their  food.* 

The  entrance  to  the  Shogun’s  seat, . Suruga,  was  not 
savory  for  the  sight  of  several  crosses  with  dead  bod- 
ies hanging.  These  corpses  were  often  used  by  passing 
Samurai  to  test  their  swords,  and  so  by  frequent  hack- 
ings were  much  cut  up.  The  city  had  a population,  so 
he  judged,  of  250,000.  The  handicraftsmen  dwelt  out- 
side of  the  city,  so  as  not  to  disturb  with  their  pound- 
ing and  hammering  the  richer  and  more  leisurely  sort. 
After  a day’s  preparation  Saris  was  conducted  into  the 
castle,  bringing  his  presents  upon  small  tables  of 
sweet-smelling  wood,  according  to  custom.  Inside  the 
castle  he  passed  three  drawbridges,  each  with  its 
guard,  and  then,  ascending  handsome  stone  steps,  he 
was  met  by  two  grave  and  comely  officers,  the  Shogun’s 
Secretary  and  Admiral,  who  led  him  into  an  antechamber. 
After  resting  a bit  upon  the  mats,  the  two  officers  rose 
and  conducted  him  into  the  Presence  Chamber,  in  order 
to  make  due  reverence  to  the  empty  throne  chair.  It 
was  about  five  feet  high,  sides  and  back  richly  finished 
in  cloth  of  gold,  but  without  a canopy.  The  presents 
from  his  English  King  James,  and  his  own,  were ‘laid 
in  order  in  this  audience  room.  Presently,  while  wait- 
ing in  the  antechamber,  it  was  announced  that  His 
Highness  had  arrived  and  was  seated.  Saris,  now  en- 
tering alone,  approached  the  Shogun  and  presented, 
probably  on  bended  knee,  the  king’s  letter.  The  Sho- 


* On  account  of  a violent  colic  that  is  so  common  the  peo- 
ple even  to  this  day  drink  but  little  cold  water. 


CAPT.  SAKIS  AND  THE  SHOGUN. 


149 


gun,  taking  it,  raised  it  to  his  forehead  as  a mark  of 
respect,  according  to  a custom  still  prevalent,  and, 
through  his  interpreter,  kneeling  near  him,  bade  the 
Englishman  welcome,  and  to  rest  after  his  wearisome 
journey,  and  said  that  an  answer  would  be  ready  in  a 
day  or  two.  In  due  time  the  answer  to  King  James  I.’s 
letter,  and  an  official  copy  of  trading  privileges,  were 
handed  to  Saris,  and  he  then  returned  to  Kirado. 
Shortly  afterwards  Capt.  Saris,  with  the  Shogun’s 
presents  and  the  letter  to  King  James,  sailed  away  to 
England.  Adams,  who  had  entered  the  English  India 
Company’s  service,  and  seven  others,  were  left  in 
charge  of  the  trading  post  at  Hirado.  But  notwith- 
standing this  auspicious  opening,  the  English  did  not 
succeed  in  their  trading  enterprise  in  Japan.  They 
bought  junks  and  made  efforts  to  open  trade  from 
Japan  with  Siam,  Cochin  China,  and  Korea;  but  the 
Dutch  pushed  their  enterprises  and  had  the  bulk  of  the 
trade.  Having  many  large  ships,  they  were  too  strong 
for  the  English.  In  a few  years  war  broke  out  between 
the  Dutch  and  English  at  home,  and  so  the  Dutch, 
with  several  ships  and  an  overpowering  force  of  men, 
attacked  the  English  in  Japanese  waters  and  overcame 
them.  Finally,  in  1623,  discouraged  over  their  losses, 
the  English  abandoned  their  trade  in  Japan.  To  us 
to-day  it  is  strange  reading  that  the  Dutch  were  too 
strong  for  the  English  in  ships  and  trade.  As  already 
stated,  the  rebellion  of  the  peasant  Christians  at  Shima- 
bara  greatly  enraged  the  Japanese  rulers  against  the 
Portuguese,  who  had,  as  they  believed,  stirred  up  that 
uprising.  An  edict  was  therefore  issued  forbidding 
two  things:  first,  any  Portuguese  coming  to  Japan  for 
any  purpose;  and  second,  any  Japanese  going  out  of 
the  country. 


150  japan:  country,  court,  people. 

And  so  it  came  to  pass  that  the  Dutch  alone  were 
left  in  their  little  trading  island  at  Nagasaki;  and 
they  were  practically  shut  up  and  treated  as  prisoners 
in  this  island.  With  this  slight  exception  the  period  of 
open  intercourse  and  trade  with  Europe  was  then 
closed,  and  Japan  entered  upon  a policy  of  rigid  isola- 
tian  as  a hermit  nation.  (We  should  say  that  the  Chi- 
nese were  also  allowed  restricted  trade  in  Japan  along 
with  the  Dutch.)  And  how  can  we  explain  this  change 
of  policy? 

There  are  two  reasons,  perhaps  more.  First,  the 
Japanese  were  afraid  of  the  Roman  Catholics,  who  had 
gotten  so  much  influence  over  certain  princes,  Daimyos, 
and  generals,  especially  in  Kiushiu.  Secondly,  they 
were  afraid  of  becoming  entangled  in  the  broils  and 
wars  of  European  nations,  and  of  being  attacked  by 
their  ships  and  troops.  India  had  been  invaded,  first 
by  Portuguese,  then  by  the  Dutch  and  French,  and  then 
by  the  English.  And  thirdly,  it  may  be  that  the  morals 
of  many  of  the  sailors  and  merchants  of  Europe  who 
came  to  Japan  did  not  make  a very  favorable  impres- 
sion upon  the  Japanese.  The  Portuguese  and  Span- 
iards were  Roman  Catholics,  the  Dutch  and  English 
were  Protestants;  but  whether  they  acted  in  sucb  a 
way  as  to  make  the  Japanese  respect  and  desire  the 
Christian  religion  is  doubtful.  If  the  example  of  Capt. 
Saris’s  bad  sailors  is  a representative  one,  we  fear  the 
Japanese  were  not  favorably  impressed  by  their  con- 
tact with  the  Europeans.  When  Saris  returned  to 
Ilirado  from  Ids  visit  to  the  Shogun,  seven  of  his 
crew  had  run  away  and  joined  the  Portuguese  at  Na- 
gasaki, alleging  that  they  had  been  used  more  like 
dogs  than  men.  During  Saris’s  absence  others,  seduced 
by  drink  and  women,  had  committed  great  irregular- 


ALL  EXCLUDED  EXCEPT  THE  DUTCH. 


151 


ities,  quarreling  with  the  Japanese  and  among  them- 
selves, even  to  wounding,  maiming,  and  death.  Hav- 
ing paid  up  a good  many  boarding-house  and  liquor 
shop  bills  against  his  men,  Saris  sailed  away.  (See 
Hildreth,  p.  172.)  Shameful  patterns  these  of  Chris- 
tian civilization  before  the  eyes  of  idolaters!  Ah!  if 
the  Roman  Catholics  had  kept  their  hands  from  med- 
dling with  the  Japanese  government,  and  if  the  Protest- 
ant, Dutch,  and  English  had  been  pure  in  morals  and 
upright  in  their  dealings,  so  that  the  intercourse  and 
trade  so  auspiciously  opened  could  have  gone  on,  what 
wonderful  changes  would  have  been  wrought  in  the 
minds  of  the  Japanese!  It  has  been  charged  against 
the  Dutch,  who  managed  to  keep  their  little  trading 
post  and  bring  in  their  ships  yearly,  that  they  prac- 
tically renounced  Christianity  and  cringingly  submit- 
ted to  all  sorts  of  restrictions,  insults,  and  indignities. 
There  is  some  truth  in  the  charge;  how  much,  we  do 
not  care  to  discuss.  That  the  profits  of  this  trade  were 
enormous  there  is  no  question.  The  Dutch  brought 
their  goods  and  carried  away  silver;  and  when  the  sil- 
ver became  scarce  they  shipped  gold;  and  at  last,  when 
silver  and  gold  became  scarce,  they  exported  im- 
mense quantities  of  copper.  Before  leaving  the  Dutch 
and  their  trading  post  at  Nagasaki  there  is  one  thing 
we  must  thank  them  for:  that  with  their  little  colony 
they  always  kept  a resident  physician  and  surgeon  and 
a naturalist.  Those  scholars  of  scientific  tastes,  like 
Kampfer  and  Siebold,  studied  as  best  they  could  the 
country,  its  productions,  the  people,  and  their  man- 
ners ; and  their  historical  and  scientific  writings,  now 
preserved  in  the  great  libraries  of  Europe  and  America, 
are  highly  prized  as  authorities  for  those  times. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


A HERMIT  NATION— CIVILIZATION  OF  THIS  PERIOD 
OF  NA  TIONAL  SECL  US  I ON  {1638-1854). 

Christianity  having  been  outlawed  as  a “corrupt 
sect,”  dangerous  to  government  and  people,  wooden 
edict  boards  were  hung  up  in  all  public  places  forbid- 
ding the  profession  of  the  Christian  faith,  or  the  har- 
boring of  any  teacher  or  disciple  of  it  as  a crime  pun- 
ishable with  death,  and  large  rewards  were  offered  to 
informers.  As  we  have  stated  previously,  all  foreign- 
ers and  foreign  Christians  were  forbidden  to  enter  the 
country;  and  all  communication  and  trade  with  for- 
eigners, with  the  slight  exception  of  Dutch  and  Chi- 
nese, were  strictly  forbidden. 

The  proud  Samurai,  despising  all  kinds  of  trade  and 
manual  labor,  only  held  the  Dutch  in  lower  contempt 
for  being  willing  to  be  shut  up,  as  it  were  in  prison, 
for  the  sake  of  base  gain.  In  keeping  with  the  policy 
of  isolation  adopted  by  the  Tokugawa  Shoguns,  even 
foreign  books,  writings,  and  pictures  found  in  the  pos- 
session of  a Japanese  were  seized,  and  the  man’s  head 
taken  off.  To  prevent  the  possibility  of  trading  over 
sea  with  foreign  countries,  all  ships  above  a given  size 
were  seized  and  destroyed,  and  new  ships  had  to  be 
built  within  the  prescribed  size. 

The  impression  was  everywhere  sought  to  be  made 
upon  the  minds  of  the  people  that  foreigners  were  dan- 
gerous barbarians,  worthy  only  of  loathing  and  suspi- 
cion— “hairy  barbarians,”  wearing  beard;  and  the  pa- 
triotic thing  was  to  kill  any  of  them  that  dare  set  their 
(152) 


THE  PEOPLE. 


158 


unhallowed  feet  upon  Japan’s  sacred  soil.  Thus,  with 
her  gates  closed  to  the  outside  world,  Japan  remained 
a hermit  nation  until  the  year  of  our  Lord  1854,  a space 
of  over  two  hundred  years.  Before  passing  on  to  the 
story  of  more  recent  times  we  must  pause  to  consider: 

I.  The  People. 

They  have  small  bodies,  yellow  skins,  black  coarse 
hair,  dark  eyes,  lips  rather  thick,  and  nose  not  very 
high.  They  have  not  so  much  of  the  almond  eye  as  the 
Chinese,  and  yet  the  shape  of  the  eye  is  somewhat  sim- 
ilar. Unlike  the  Chinese,  however,  they  are  livelier 
and  quicker  of  movement,  and  more  polite.  They  are, 
in  politeness  and  grace,  the  French  of  the  Orient.  Like 
all  Asiatic  peoples,  they  are  highly  conceited,  but,  differ- 
ent from  their  Chinese  neighbors,  are  chivalric,  brave, 
and  patriotic  to  the  highest  degree.  No  braver  people 
nor  more  patriotic  ever  breathed,  nor  can  we  withhold 
our  admiration  for  the  self-sacrifices  which  they  have 
made  in  recent  years  for  the  love  of  their  country. 
They  pride  themselves  on  the  antiquity  of  their  nation. 
As  to  their  antiforeign  feeling  it  was  not  originally  a 
national  characteristic,  but  has  been  taken  on  as  a re- 
sult of  historical  experience  with  foreign  peoples. 

In  agreement  with  the  testimony  of  Adams,  St. 
Xavier  spoke  of  the  Japanese  three  hundred  and  fifty 
years  ago  in  one  of  his  letters  as  follows:  “I  really 
think  that  among  barbarous  nations  there  can  be  none 
that  has  more  natural  goodness  than  Japan.”  Again 
in  the  same  letter:  “They  are  wonderfully  inclined  to 
see  all  that  is  good  and  honest,  and  have  an  eagerness 
to.  learn.”  Griffis,  who  visited  Kioto  in  1873,  says: 
“No  people  are  more  courtly  and  polished  than  the 
Japanese;  . . . the  citizens  of  the  Mikado  surpass 


154 


JAPAN:.  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


all  others  in  Japan  in  refined  manners  and  graces  of 
etiquette.”  As  to  their  suspiciousness  and  lack  of  mu- 
tual confidence  or  candor,  this  is  not  a defect  peculiar 
to  Japanese  more  than  to  other  idolatrous  nations. 
Mutual  confidence  is  not  a fruit  of  idolatrous  religion 
and  civilization.  After  residing  among  them  for  some 
years,  the  writer  is  inclined  to  say  that  the  Japanese 
are  quick-minded,  lovers  of  the  beautiful,  polite,  brave, 
patriotic,  eager  to  learn,  but  extremely  self-conceited 
and  rather  suspicious.  For  a delicate  sense  of  proprie- 
ty and  gracefulness  of  manner,  they  probably  have  no 
equals  in  the  world.  In  the  absence  of  aroused  passion 
or  strong  prejudice  they  are  very  kind-hearted;  and 
personally  the  writer  has  been  well  treated  by  them 
and  holds  many  of  them  as  his  dearest  friends.  When 
anger  is  aroused  they  are  rather  vindictive  and  cruel, 
judged  by  our  standards.  This  is  due  to  long  centuries 
of  feudalism,  which  not  only  justified  but  enjoined  the 
taking  of  revenge  upon  an  enemy.  Of  one  of  their 
marked  characteristics,  the  passion  for  the  beautiful,  we 
shall  speak  later  when  considering  their  fine  arts. 

II.  Modes  of  Living  and  Working. 

Their  ways  of  living  are  quite  different  from  ours. 
They  do  not  live  in  town  and  country  as  we  do,  but  in 
town  and  village.  No  separate  farmhouses  are  seen 
there,  but  in  villages  they  dwell,  with  the  surrounding 
neighborhood  divided  into  little  farms  of  from  one  to 
five  acres.  The  streets  are  narrow  and  for  the  most 
part  without  pavements;  Houses  are  built  right  on  the 
street,  or,  if  a rich  man’s  house,  it  is  built  in  a large  yard 
cut  off  from  the  view  of  the  street  by  a high  wall  and  a 
great  gate.  In  Tokyo  some  wide  streets  with  pave- 
ments have  been  laid  out  recently.  The  houses,  made 


JAPANESE  HOUSE. 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


156 

of  wood  and  plaster,  are  low  and  covered  with  tiles  or 
with  straw  thatch. 

The  roof  is  usually  not  steep,  and  the  rafters  always 
extend  at  the  eaves  two  and  a half  to  three  feet  beyond 
the  walls.  Upon  the  rafters  are  laid  down  thin  sheet- 
ing, and  upon  this  sheeting  mud  is  laid  about  two  and 
a half  inches  thick,  and  in  this  soft  mud  the  tiles  are 
laid.  These  tiles,  of  burnt  clay  and  of  iron  color,  are  as 
wide  as  a man’s  double  hands,  are  slightly  convex  and 
have  a flange  on  one  edge  and  a groove  on  the  other. 
They  make  a very  cheap,  durable,  and  pretty  roof.  If 
the  roof  is  of  straw,  the  straw  is  laid  on  six  inches  thick 
and  fastened  at  the  comb  by  bundles  of  straw  bent  into 
a half  curve,  laid  on  crosswise  and  fastened  with 
strong  cords  or  tough  root  rope.  Whether  of  tile  or 
thatch,  the  lack  of  chimneys  is  noticeable.  For  smoke 
escape  there  is  left  in  the  roof  a square  hole  that  may  be 
closed  with  a wooden  lid  when  it  rains;  but  if  the  roof 
is  of  thatch,  the  smoke  escapes  through  the  gables  and 
under  the  eaves.  Now  that  the  house  is  under  roof  the 
walls  are  next  to  finish.  ~ First,  instead  of  lathing  nailed 
on  to  the  studs  or  posts,  bamboo  splits  are  wattled  in 
between  the  posts,  and  tied  with  strings.  The  mortar 
is  then  put  on  and  finished  with  white  plaster.  If  it  be 
a poor  man’s  house,  there  is  no  white-plaster  finish  of 
the  wall,  and  the  most  of  them  are  very  poor.  On  the 
outside  the  walls  are  plastered  in  the  same  way  except 
that,  for  protection  against  the  rain,  there  is  a weather- 
boarding from  the  ground  six  feet  upward.  These 
boards  are  charred  to  make  them  last,  and,  on  account 
of  scarcity  of  timber,  are  very  thin,  and  nailed  on  in 
upright  fashion.  With  eaves  extended  at  the  top,  and 
this  boarding  at  the  bottom,  the  plastered  or  stuccoed 
walls  last  a long  time  against  wind  and  rain. 


A JAPANESE  DWELLING. 


157 


With  no  chimneys  and  small  windows,  how  to  get 
sunshine  and  ventilation  was  an  important  question  in 
the  evolution  of  the  Japanese  dwelling.  To  get  the 
warm  sunshine,  all  of  one  side  (the  south  side,  if  possi- 
ble) and  a part  of  another  side  of  the  house  are  made 
moveable — that  is,  sliding  doors  about  six  feet  by  three, 


INTERIOR  VIEW  OF  JAPANESE  HOUSE. 

are  set  up  side  by  side,  all  running  in  a groove  above 
and  below;  so  that  in  daytime  all  are  slided  back  into 
a large  upright  box  at  one  end  of  the  house.  These 
sliding  doors  are  called  amados , and  in  an  ordinary 
house  number  from  twelve  to  twenty.  At  night  these 
doors  are  all  put  in  place  and  the  whole  side  of  the 
house  closed  up.  Every  morning  the  first  thing  done 


158 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


is  to  slide  back  the  amaclos , otherwise  the  house 
would  be  very  dark,  and  in  summer  hot,  for  the  win- 
dows are  usually  small.  Now  just  inside  a narrow 
veranda  is  another  sliding  partition  made  of  slender 
frames  covered  with  transparent  paper,  or,  as  in  the 
cut,  filled  in  with  glass.  These  are  called  shoji.  If  when 
the  outside  amados  are  slid  back,  it  is  too  damp  or 
windy,  the  shojis  remain  shut;  if  it  be  both  bright  and 
warm,  then  both  amados  and  shojis  are  pushed  back, 
and  you  sit  inside  the  house  looking  right  out  into  the 
open,  and  enjoy  the  fresh  breeze  or  the  scenery.  By 
this  arrangement  Japanese  houses  are  delightfully  cool 
in  summer,  but  disagreeable  in  winter. 

Suppose,  now,  you  are  going  to  visit  a Japanese  house. 
You  first  go  through  a low,  slatted,  double  sliding  gate 
into  a small  vestibule.  The  floor  of  this  vestibule  is 
cement  or  clay  packed  hard.  To  the  one  who  appears 
to  receive  you,  you  make  a low  bow,  and  are  invited 
to  come  “honorably  up  higher.”  This  means  that  the 
house  floor  is  about  two  feet  above  that  of  the  -vesti- 
bule. Giving  humble  thanks  and  leaving  your  shoes, 
you  get  up  on  the  floor,  and  soon  observe  that  every- 
where it  is  covered  with  a slightly  yielding  thick  mat- 
ting, laid  down  in  pieces  six  feet  long  and  three  feet 
wide.  You  notice,  too,  that  there  are  no  fixed  wooden 
or  brick  walls  dividing  the  rooms,  but  that  the  sliding 
papered  frames  (shoji)  just  described,  serve  for  parti- 
tions between  them;  and  that  these,  easily  taken  out, 
would  throw  almost  all  the  house  into  one  room. 
When  you  look  around  you  are  surprised  to  see  no 
chairs,  tables,  or  other  furniture  like  ours.  You  ob- 
serve too,  the  lack  of  fireplaces  and  stoves  for  heating, 
but  instead  you  see  in  the  center  of  the  room  the  hi- 
bachi , the  fire  box  or  brasier,  with  a handful  of  charcoal 


INSIDE  THE  HOUSE. 


159 


slowly  burning.  Sitting  around  this  hibachi  upon  mats 
on  the  floor,  you  warm  your  hands  and  wrists,  and  as 
for  your  feet  you  keep  them  warm  by  sitting  on  them 
like  the  Japanese  do — if  you  know  how.  You  leave  your 
shoes  in  the  little  vestibule  because  the  Japanese  do 
not  sit  on  chairs  or  divans,  or  sleep  on  bedsteads  (only 
a few  use  our  furniture  now),  or  sit  at  tables  as  we 
do;  but  for  sitting,  writing,  sewing,  eating,  sleeping, 
etc.,  they  get  right  down  upon  the  thick  matting.  In 
order  to  keep  this  perfectly  clean,  the  shoes,  with 
dust  and  dirt,  must  not  be  worn  indoors.  Should  you 
be  invited  to  a meal,  you  discover  no  common  table 
with  chairs  set  around  for  the  whole  family.  While 
eating,  each  one  sits  on  the  floor  behind  his  little  stand 
six  inches  high,  and  receives  his  bowl  of  rice,  drinks  his 
tea,  eats  his  fish,  and  bits  of  vegetables  without  knives, 
forks,  or  spoons.  Instead  of  these,  two  slender  sticks 
ten  inches  long  are  used;  and  you  would  be  surprised 
to  see  how  dexterously  these  chopsticks  are  used  in 
picking  off  the  meat  of  the  fish,  etc.  The  tea  is  taken 
without  milk  or  sugar,  and  serves  at  meals  for  coffee 
and  milk.  And  should  you  be  invited  to  stay  all  night, 
you  do  not  sleep  on  a high  bedstead  but  on  a single 
pallet  made  down  on  the  matting.  During  the  day  the 
bedding  is  kept  in  a closet  with  sliding  doors,  called 
the  4 4 push-put- in-place.”  The  pillow  is  not  a large,  un- 
healthful thing  made  of  feathers,  but  is  like  a lady’s 
hand  muff  stuffed  with  cotton,  or  a wooden  piece  three 
inches  high  and  ten  long  placed  under  the  neck.  As 
the  Japanese  are  a cleanly  race,  every  house  except  the 
poorest  has  a bath  and  closet. 

Traveling  by  Kayo  and  Jinrikusha. — In  feudal  times 
the  common  people  walked;  the  upper  classes  rode  in 
kayos  or  sedan  chairs.  To  a foreigner  the  sitting  be- 


(180) 


TRAVELING  BY  KAGO. 


JAPANESE  DOCTORING. 


161 


comes  very  irksome,  if  not  painful;  but  the  Japanese,  ac- 
customed to  bending  their  legs  under  them,  and  sitting 
on  their  feet  from  childhood,  can  ride  all  day  in  such  a 
bamboo  chair  without  great  discomfort.  The  chair  is 
swung  to  a pole  borne  on  the  shoulders  of  two  men, 
one  in  front  and  one  behind.  The  Kago  is  still  used 
for  travel  across  the  mountainous  parts  of  the  country. 
Since  the  revolution,  the  jinrikusha  has  been  invented 
and  introduced,  and  is  now  in  all  but  universal  use 
among  the  middle  and  upper  classes.  It  was  the  in- 
vention, it  is  said,  of  a foreigner  in  Shanghai.  Jin- 
rikusha means,  literally,  44  man-power- wheel,”  and,  as 
seen  in  cut,  is  a small  two- wheeled  vehicle  with  springs 
and  top,  drawn  by  a man.  This  is  a very  convenient 
way  of  travel,  but  it  is  hard  upon  the  coolie  who  pulls 
it.  When  the  road  is  level  and  hard,  the  man  can  trot 
along  at  a lively  gait,  but  when  weather  is  bad  and 
roads  are  heavy  or  hilly,  such  a life  is  very  hard  to  the 
pulling  man.  Indeed,  it  is  said  the  average  life  of  the 
jinrikusha  man  is  not  more  than  ten  years.  In  the  cities 
there  are  jinrikusha  stations  where  you  may  engage  fare 
to  any  place  in  the  town  at  an  average  rate  of  seven 
cents  per  hour;  if  out  of  town  and  the  distance  is  long, 
you  may  travel  by  relays.  But  in  either  case  be  sure 
to  make  your  bargain  well  understood  before  you  start, 
otherwise  you  will  surely  have  trouble  at  the  end. 

Japanese  Doctoring. — To-day  they  have  medical  col- 
leges and  study  the  Western  system  of  medicine,  but 
until  recently  the  Chinese  system  was  in  vogue.  This 
was  a mixture  of  science  and  superstition,  or  physic 
and  sorcery.  As  among  so  many  other  old  nations,  the 
4 4 medicine  man  ” was  a sacred  person  or  priest.  In 
the  first  place  the  whole  theory  of  diseases  was  based 
upon  certain  teachings  of  Chinese  philosophy  as  to  the 
11 


JINKIKUSHA. 


JAPANESE  DOCTORING. 


163 


male  (yo)  and  female  (in),  principles  in  nature,  the  pos- 
itive and  negative.  When  these  two  principles  are  not 
in  right  balance,  then  people  got  sick. 

The  doctor  was  a great  man,  and  when  called  came  in 
considerable  state  in  his  kago.  Tea  was  at  once  offered. 
With  no  watches  or  thermometers,  pulse  and  tempera- 
ture were  taken  after  a fashion.  The  point  in  the  dif- 
ferent pulses  indicated  had  something  to  do  with  the 
two  principles  above  mentioned,  and  the  question  for 
the  doctor  to  decide  was:  Which  one  has  got  the  upper 
hand?  The  examination  finished,  and  the  hands  washed 
to  purge  away  the  impurity  of  the  disease,  the  doctor 
was  offered  refreshments.  There  was  no  fee  for  the 
visit,  but  the  doctor  lived  by  selling  his  medicines.  The 
drug  store  had  not  yet  separated  from  the  doctor’s  office. 

The  medicines  were  made  of  herbs  and  the  organs  of 
animals  or  insects.  Powders,  pills,  and  decoctions  were 
made  of  plants.  The  brain,  heart,  liver,  and  other 
parts  of  insects,  frogs,  lizards,  and  quadrupeds  were 
dried  and  reduced  to  powder,  and  in  this  form  were 
supposed  to  have  great  healing  virtue. 

Acupuncture  with  a very  fine  needle  were  also  prac- 
ticed, especially  for  pains  in  the  stomach  and  bowels. 
The  number  of  punctures  ranged  from  one  to  twenty, 
depth  from  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch.  Mas- 
sage was  also  practiced  by  a guild  of  blind  men,  who 
made  their  living  rubbing  the  skin  and  kneading  the 
muscles.  Massage  was  recommended  to  persons  fatigued 
from  walking,  or  suffering  with  back  ache,  rheumatism, 
etc.  Until  1870  the  blind  shampooers,  a guild  extend- 
ing all  over  the  land,  with  one  office  in  Kioto  and  an- 
other in  Yedo,  was  divided  into  several  grades  and  each 
required  examination  and  fee.  The  organization  is  not 
now  so  flourishing,  still  the  melancholy  whistle  of  the 


(164) 


J A PANES  E DOCTOR!  NO 


A DRY  GOODS  STORE. 


165 


blind  sliampooer,  as  be  slowly  feels  his  way  along  the 
street,  night  or  day,  with  staff  in  hand,  is  often  heard. 
Very  skillful  in  rubbing  the  body,  their  one  mistake  is 
rubbing  downward  instead  of  upward. 

Another  remedy  used  for  many  ailments  was  the  moxa. 
Little  bits  of  dried  plant,  which  we  call  mugwort,  are 
rolled  up  into  a ball  or  cone  and  then  ignited  and  ap- 
plied to  the  body.  Moxa  was  applied  for  fainting  spells, 
nose  bleeding,  rheumatism,  and  a hundred  other  ail- 
ments. The  burning  of  the  moxa  upon  the  naked  skin 
is  painful,  and  hence  was  sometimes  used  as  a punish- 
ment for  bad  children.  Little  black  spots  are  often 
seen  upon  the  legs  and  backs  of  coolies,  showing  that 
the  moxa  is  still  much  used. 

Merchandising. — The  accompanying  cut  gives  a fair 
idea  of  a Japanese  dry  goods  store.  The  two  young 
men  are  clerks ; one  is  calculating  with  the  soroban 
(abacus)  the  cost  of  a piece  of  goods  which  the  lady 
seated  near  wishes  to  buy.  In  Japan,  as  well  as  China, 
the  abacus  is  always  used  in  making  calculations,  even 
the  smallest;  and  while  they  are  very  quick  and  accu- 
rate in  casting  up  figures  with  it,  without  it  they  are  at 
a great  loss.  All  of  the  clerks  are  sitting,  with  legs 
bent  back  under  them.  One  is  surprised  the  first  time 
he  enters  a Japanese  shop  (store)  to  see  the  merchant  or 
his  clerk  sitting  upon  the  matted  floor  and  apparently 
indifferent  to  the  selling  of  his  goods.  There  is  no  po- 
lite usher  at  the  door  to  invite  you  in  and  inquire  what 
you  wish.  Nor  does  the  clerk  rise  to  receive  you  or  in- 
quire what  you  wish;  you  yourself  must  ask  for  what 
you  wish  to  see.  In  Japan  there  are  no  great  stores  as 
in  America,  they  are  rather  little  shops  or  stalls.  It  is 
the  custom  of  the  merchants  to  procure  young  boys  as 
apprentices  through  a go-between,  whose  business  it  is 


(166) 


DRY-GOODS  STORE. 


STRANGE  WAYS. 


167 


to  find  employees  and  bring  them  to  their  employers. 
After  years  of  service,  the  master  raises  them  to  the 
rank  of  clerk,  and  if  still  faithful  and  capable  frequent- 
ly adopts  one  of  them  into  his  family  and  gives  his 
daughter  in  marriage,  or  sometimes  gives  him  a little 
money  and  sets  up  a branch  shop  or  store  bearing  the 
same  name  as  the  master  or  father-in-law. 

Among  those  people  the  same  domestic  and  economic 
conditions  exist  to-day  which  obtained  several  genera- 
tions ago  among  the  English-speaking  nations — that  is, 
in  the  same  dwelling  the  master,  his  family,  and  ap- 
prentices reside,  the  goods  are  on  sale  in  the  front 
room  or  stall,  while  in  the  rear  they  are  being  manu- 
factured. The  store,  the  shop,  and  the  family  dwelling 
were  one  and  the  same  place. 

Strange  Ways. 

In  matters  of  etiquette  and  form  they  are  quite  differ- 
ent from  us.  The  left,  not  the  right,  is  the  side  and 
seat  of  honor.  White,  and  not  black,  is  the  appropri- 
ate color  of  mourning  at  funerals.  W e teach  our  chil- 
dren not  to  make  a noise  when  sipping  milk  or  water, 
but  in  Japan  noise  with  the  lips  and  breath  when  drink- 
ing is  a mark  of  polite  appreciation.  With  us,  women 
must  be  given  preference,  but  with  them  the  women 
must  give  preference  and  particular  politeness  to  the 
“lords  of  creation,”  for  it  is  not  proper  in  Japan  for 
the  gentlemen  to  be  humble  or  give  precedence  to  ‘ ‘ weak- 
er vessels.”  Again,  the  order  of  the  family  and  given 
names  is  directly  the  reverse  of  ours — for  instance,  John 
Smith  in  Japan  would  be  Smith  John,  and  the  titles 
such  as  “ Mr.”  “Rev.”  and  the  like  are  placed  after  the 
name,  so  that  Prof.  Jones  would  be  Jones  Prof.  The 
title  “San,”  meaning  Mr.,  Mrs.,  or  Miss,  has  become  r 


(168) 


CURIO  STORE, 


STRANGE  WAYS. 


169 


well-nigh  universal  title  applied  to  noblemen,  gentle- 
men, women,  and  servants  alike,  hence  we  are  continu- 
ally hearing  such  terms  as  “Physician  Mr.,”  “Wheel- 
man Mr.,”  “Cook  Mr.,”  and  even  “Baby  Mr.”  It  is 
said  that  when  the  steam  cars  were  first  brought  into 
the  country  some  of  the  simple-minded  country  folk, 
thinking  them  to  be  a thing  of  life  and  power,  called  the 
cars  ‘ 4 Steam  Car  Mr.  ” 

Their  mental  operations,  as  seen  in  the  way  they  say 
things,  are  quite  different  from  ours;  for  example,  the 
preposition  in  English  is  a post-position  in  Japanese, 
for  it  always  follows  the  noun,  hence  they  say:  “Go  up 
mountain  into.”  In  short  the  order  of  thought  in  a 
Japanese  sentence  is  in  general  the  direct  reverse  of  ours, 
so  that  in  translating  Japanese  into  English  it  is  well  to 
begin  at  the  end  of  the  Sentence  and  go  backward. 

With  us  it  is  not  considered  polite  to  speak  much  or 
too  well  of  one’s  self,  but  we  do  not  carry  it  to  the  ex- 
treme that  the  Japanese  do;  for  they,  in  speaking  of 
one’s  self,  his  family,  or  concerns,  must  use  humble  and 
depreciatory  language,  whereas  for  the  person  addressed 
honorifics,  longer  forms,'  and  even  different  words  must 
be  used;  for  instance,  my  wife  must  be  designated  as  an 
ugly  dunce  of  a thing,  my  son  as  a stupid  fellow,  but 
your  wife  is  an  honorable  lady,  and  the  like.  In  fact 
in  polite  language  my  son  is  translated  by  a different 
word  from  your  son.  Foreigners  are  frequently  per- 
plexed to  find  a suitable  word  to  apply  to  their  wives 
so  as  not  to  offend  the  tastes  of  the  Japanese  nor  violate 
their  own  sense  of  what  is  due  their  wives.  As  to  say- 
ing of  my  head  that  it  simply  aches  and  of  your  honora- 
ble head  that  it  aches  or  augustly  suffers  we  foreigners 
have  no  sort  of  objection,  but  when  it  comes  to  speak- 
ing of  our  wives  as  stupid  things  we  must  draw  the  line. 


170 


JAPAN  I COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


Still  further  we  notice  that  the  Japanese  way  of  work- 
ing is  often  different  from  ours;  for  example,  when  we 
first  went  to  Japan  we  were  surprised  to  see  so  many 
sitting  down  on  the  floor  or  ground  when  at  work.  W e 
observed  blacksmiths  as  well  as  coopers  and  tinkers  sit- 
ting down  flat  on  the  ground.  When  passing  one  on 
the  street  they  turn  to  the  left;  the  carpenter  pulls  his 
plane  and  saw  instead  of  pushing  it.  In  many  other 
ways  one  is  frequently  impressed  with  the  fact  that  he 
is  in  the  midst  of  a people  of  different  modes  of  think- 
ing, feeling,  and  acting;  in  fact,  a civilization  far  re- 
moved from  ours.  And  yet  their  hearts  and  their  needs 
of  soul  are  quite  the  same  as  ours. 


III.  Ranks  and  Classes  of  Society. 

During  the  Tokugawa  period  the  ranks  and  classes  of 
society  were  somewhat  as  follows: 


f I.  Tens  hi  (Son  of  Heav- 
6 j en),  Emperor ..... 


11.  Jvuge,  Court  Nobles. 


j III.  Shogun 


I TV.  H iH  Nobles. 


X ominal  ruler,  fount  of 
honors,  head  of  na- 
tional religion,  con- 
sidered divine,  even 
before  death. 

f Actual  ruler,  with  au- 
thority of  a king;  his 
relatives,  with  their 
retainers,  hold  fief 
| lands  as  his  vassals, 
making  a standing 
army  of  80,000,  the 
“Hatamotos”  (under 
the  flag). 


RANKS  AND  CLASSES. 


171 


V.  Daimyos  and  Their  Families. — The  ancient  no- 
bility were  allowed  by  Shoguns  to  keep  part  of  their 
lands  as  territorial  lords. 

While  the  Shogun  had  his  own  guards  at  his  capital 
and  kept  his  own  garrisons  in  the  Osaka  and  Kioto  cas- 
tles, from  his  own  family,  clan,  and  vassals  he  chose 
officers  and  advisers  for  the  government;  the  Daimyos 
were  also  recognized  by  appointing  from  the  eighteen 
great  daimyates  five  of  them  as  his  Great  Council,  and 
three  others  as  a Second  Council. 

Each  Daimyo  had  his  own  castle,  his  bands  of  Samurai, 
and  his  feudal  revenue  estimated  in  rice,  according  to 
which  he  paid  tribute  yearly  to  the  Shogun.  For  ex- 
ample, Satsuma  had  a revenue  of  710,000  Aoku  of  rice, 
the  amount  of  yearly  rent  from  his  land.  They  were 
allowed  to  control  the  affairs  and  people  within  their 
own  domains  pretty  much  at  will.  But  certain  restric- 
tions were  laid  upon  them,  respecting  the  increase  of 
their  lands  by  marriage  alliances  or  purchases,  consent 
of  the  Shogun  being  required.  And  as  a mark  of  vassal- 
age  they  were  required  to  spend  a part  of  every  year  in 
their  yashikis  surrounding  the  Shogun’s  castle  at  Yedo. 
The  coming  of  these  territorial  lords  from  all  parts, 
with  their  proud  princes  and  demure  princesses,  their 
long  train  of  armed  Samurai  and  servants,  brought  eclat 
to  Yedo. 

Xo  other  capital  in  the  world  enjoyed  such  a thing. 
This  explains  why,  in  the  older  geographies,  Yedo  was 
named  the  largest  city  in  the  world.  As  the  time  came 
around  for  the  Daimyos  to  leave  their  country  yashikis 
and  go  up  to  the  capital,  we  can  imagine  what  a stir 
there  was,  and  how  the  towns  and  taverns  along  the 
highways  would  be  decked  out  to  honor  the  great  Tono- 
samas.  And  when  these  nobles  with  their  families,  borne 


172 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


in  lacquered  litters  and  attended  by  their  armed  guards, 
were  all  entering  the  great  military  capital,  the  stately 
processions  and  equipages  must  have  presented  a bril- 
liant and  impressive  scene. 

VI.  The  Samurai. — These  were  the  haughty  military 
gentry  and  scholars  of  the  clan,  an  exclusive  hereditary 
class.  They  were  the  guards  of  the  Daimyos,  for  whose 
defense  and  honor  they  were  always  ready  to  shed  their 
blood.  They  had  no  other  business  than  serving  their 
lord,  and  keeping  the  common  people  in  subjection,  and 
were  fed  from  their  lord’s  store  of  rice.  During  this 
long  era  of  peace  (1638-1854)  their  time  was  spent  in 
fencing,  tournaments,  and  other  military  sports,  hunt- 
ing, attending  drinking  bouts,  and  studying  certain 
books.  Each  one  wore  two  swords,  a long  and  short 
one;  the  long  one  either  for  the  defense  of  his  lord  or 
to  slay  his  own  enemy,  the  short  one  to  take  his  own 
life  in  certain  emergencies.  They  were  supposed  to  be 
ready  always,  to  protect  the  weak  and  innocent  and  to 
die  for  their  honor.  The  ruling  class  for  so  many  gen- 
erations, they  naturally  fell  into  the  habit  of  despis- 
ing all  below  them,  and  ofttimes  treated  them  roughly. 
They  despised  trade  and  money.  “The  sword  is  the 
soul  of  the  Samurai”  well  expresses  the  character  of 
that  class,  and  accordingly  the  nation  has  a fearless, 
warlike  spirit. 

VII.  The  Priest  Class. — Among  most  of  the  older 
nations  priests  have  ranked  next  to  the  king,  but  in 
Japan  the  foreign  religion  of  Buddhism  pushed  aside 
the  native  Shinto  cult,  whose  head  priests  were  of  the 
imperial  family.  Some  of  the  chief  abbots  and  head 
priests  among  the  Buddhists  were  of  noble  blood,  yet 
as  a class  they  were  below  the  Samurai.  Buddhist 
priests  were  supposed  to  be  without  wives  or  children. 


V BUDDHIST  FBIEST  AT  P BAYER. 


(173) 


174 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


Boys  intended  for  the  priesthood,  many  of  them  or- 
phans or  sons  of  very  poor  fathers,  had  to  live  with  the 
priest  in  the  temple  as  his  servant  or  assistant.  Occa- 
sionally the  son  of  a noble  or  prince  of  the  blood  was 
set  apart  for  a priest.  During  the  Tokugawa  period  the 
priests  held  subordinate  rank  as  government  officials; 
but  fell  into  considerable  disrepute  on  account  of  their 
sloth,  ignorance,  and  immorality.  The  general  superin- 
tendent of  the  Shinto  shrines  was  a noble  of  the  impe- 
rial house;  and  the  Shogun  as  patron  of  Buddhism  had  a 
nobleman  appointed  primate  of  the  Buddhist  temples 
throughout  the  country. 

VIII.  The  Common  People. — They  were  divided  into 
three  subclasses,  each  lower  than  the  others.  They  were 
not  permitted  to  hear  family  names.  (See  “ History  of  the 
Empire  of  Japan,”  p.  341.) 

1.  Farmers  stood  in  higher  rank  and  honor  than  arti- 
sans and  traders.  From  ancient  times  dependent  upon 
agriculture  and  fishing,  and  influenced  by  the  example 
of  the  Chinese,  the  Japanese  held  tillers  of  the  soil  in 
the  first  rank  among  the  commons.  Being  below  the 
Samurai,  the  farmers  were  not  allowed  to  wear  swords, 
to  bear  family  names,  nor.  intermarry  with  the  higher 
classes.  They  were,  in  fact,  serfs  of  the  soil  and  under 
the  control  of  the  lords.  Outside  the  castle  toAvns,  the 
whole  community  dwelt  in  villages,  and  the  peasants 
were  ruled  by  three  classes  of  officials:  The  village  elder 
or  mayor,  the  chief  of  the  five  families  or  streets,  and  the 
representative  of  the  five  men.  The  whole  village  being 
divided  oft'  into  streets  of  five  families,  and  these  subdi- 
vided again  into  groups  of  five  persons,  all  the  affairs  of 
the  village,  and  of  theirlittle  farms  in  the  neighborhood, 
their  conduct, . etc. , were  intrusted  to  these  three  offi- 
cials. All  matters  of  petition  and  appeal  to  the  Daimyo 


THE  COMMON  PEOPLE. 


175 


or  lord  of  the  manor  were  in  the  hands  of  the  village  eld- 
ers, and  regulations  of  land,  taxes,  irrigation  ponds 
and  ditches,  and  all  demands  coming  down  from  the 
lord  passed  through  them  to  the  people.  The  village 
elder  was  a great  man  among  the  Japanese  commons. 
If  any  matter  of  complaint  or  petition  for  relief  con- 
cerned the  whole  daimyate,  then  all  the  village  elders 
acted  in  a body  in  behalf  of  their  villages.  Sometimes 
the  lords  were  very  oppressive  and  ground  their  tenant 
serfs  into  poverty.  A notable  instance  of  this  is  given 
in  the  story  of  the  Ghost  of  Sakura  (Mitford’s  “Tales  of 
Old  Japan  ”).  Sometimes  when  their  misery  became  un- 
bearable and  the  village  elders  had  failed  to  get  a hear- 
ing at  their  lord’s  gates,  the  people  turned  out  en  masse 
in  their  desperation,  dressed  in  grass  rain  coats,  with 
sickles  in  their  girdles  instead  of  swords,  and  bamboo 
poles  upon  their  shoulders,  and  marched  in  a body  to 
the  gates  of  their  lord’s  yashiki.  For  this  boldness  they 
may  have  to  pay  a few  of  their  heads,  but  they  have 
made  up  their  minds  to  die,  for  their  wives  and  children 
cannot  live  as  things  now  are. 

The  farmers  dwelt  upon  their  lords’  lands  as  hered- 
itary tenants  of  the  soil,  paying  as  a rule  forty  per  cent 
rent  yearly — sometimes  fifty  per  cent.  The  average 
amount  of  land  ranged  from  an  acre  and  a half  to  five. 
Farm  laborers  received,  besides  food  and  clothes,  a 
yearly  wage  of  from  $9.50  to  $37.  Hired  laborers  rare- 
ly got  to  eat  of  the  rice  which  they  cultivated.  Their 
staple  food  was  millet,  sweet  potatoes,  etc.  On  festival 
days  and  anniversaries  they  received,  as  a rarity,  buck- 
wheat and  barley.  During  the  Tokugawa  period  the 
peasant  farmers  fared  better  than  during  the  previous 
periods;  yet,  even,  in  this  long,  peaceful  period,  they 
were  serfs  of  the  soil  and  had  a hard  lot. 


176 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


2.  The  artisan  stood  in  a class  next  to  that  of  the 
farmers.  Each  handicraft  being  handed  down  from  fa- 
ther to  son  for  generations,  it  came  to  pass  that  some  of 
them  became  very  skillful  in  certain  productions.  The 
mechanics,  like  the  peasant  farmers,  were  serfs  of  their 
native  village,  and  could  not  move  from  place  to  place, 
nor  cross  the  boundaries  of  their  lord’s  domain  without 
his  permission.  Under  certain  restrictions  they  were 
allowed  to  form  guilds,  and  each  guild  had  its  own 
head  man,  and  the  members  wore  a certain  letter  or 
other  device  woven  into  their  outside  garments. 

3.  The  trading  class  was  still  lower  than  the  artisan. 
In  fact,  the  mercantile  class  as  we  know  it  was  hardly 
existent  in  those  days.  The  traders  were  only  small 
shopkeepers,  peddlers,  hucksters,  not  merchants  in  the 
modern  sense.  Not  only  the  Shogun,  but  the  great  Dai- 
myos  as  well,  had  their  own  warehouses  and  agents,  and 
ordered  direct  from  the  manufacturer,  or  themselves 
manufactured  such  things  as  were  needed.  There  was 
little  need,  therefore,  of  the  middleman,  who  stands  be- 
tween producer  and  consumer,  buying  from  the  one  and 

selling;  to  the  other.  These  facts  show  how  the  mer- 
© 

cantile  class  was  not  important  in  those  times,  and  how 
trading  people  were  lower  in  the  social  scale. 

4.  The  etas  were  an  outlawed,  outcast  people,  away 
below  all  the  above-mentioned.  Indeed,  they  were  not 
accounted  as  having  any  social  rank  whatever,  for  they 
were  not  even  regarded  as  men.  Their  origin  is  obscure, 
some  believing  them  to  be  descendants  of  the  Koreans, 
captured  slaves;  others,  that  they  are  the  enslaved 
remnant  of  the  ancient  Ainus.  They  were  restricted  to 
the  following  kinds  of  work,  considered  exceedingly  de- 
grading: butchers,  tanners,  body  burners,  execution- 
ers, and  scullions  of  criminals.  If  an  eta  entered  a 


CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS. 


177 


house  of  any  true  Japanese,  it  would  at  once'  be  pol- 
luted; hence  they  were  required  to  live  apart,  as  if  they 
were  social  lepers.  W e are  glad  that,  after  the  revolu- 
tion, the  Emperor  granted  them  standing  room  as  hu- 
man beings  and  citizens  along  with  his  other  subjects. 
Of  course  the  shadow  of  the  feudal  system  still  rests 
upon  the  whole  fabric  of  Japanese  society,  and  it  can- 
not be  expected  that  the  old  lines  of  exclusion  between 
classes  should  be  wiped  out  at  once. 

IV.  Customs  and  Manners.* 

In  matters  of  etiquette  and  form  the  Japanese  were 
punctilious  to  the  last  degree.  Every  form  must  be 
strictly  observed,  and  many  things  which  we  do  in  an 
informal  way  they  do  with  due  form  and  ceremony. 
Special  regard  was  had  to  precedence  of  class,  rank,  and 
age.  Just  as  it  was  among  the  European  nations  in 
feudal  times,  so  among  the  Japanese  now;  insignia,  of- 
fice, and  rank  count  for  much.  Sometimes  the  airs  and 
dignity  of  a petty  official  are  simply  ridiculous  in  the 
eyes  of  foreigners.  The  lower  classes  or  ranks  in  offi- 
cial circles  must  be  careful  to  pay  court  to  the  higher. 
The  due  respect  of  inferior  to  superior,  of  younger  to 
elder,  of  vassal  to  lord,  was  all-important  in  old  Japan. 
This  was  also  a part  of  the  Confucian  code  brought 
over  from  China. 

The  etiquette  of  salutation  and  taking  leave  will  il- 
lustrate our  point.  On  the  street  a simple  low  bow 
and  lifting  the  hat,  if  one  is  worn,  is  sufficient  when 
acquaintances  pass  each  other  without  stopping.  If 
they  stop,  then  the  bows  must  be  lower  and  more  de- 
liberate, and  must  be  repeated,  interspersed  with  polite 
inquiries  and  references  to  the  weather,  etc.  The  infe- 


12 


*Cf.  “ Mikado’s  Empire,”  p.  204. 


178 


JAPAN : COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 

rior  is  of  course  more  polite  and  deferential,  in  every 
movement  as  well  as  in  language.  Even  on  the  street 
the  one  proposing  to  pass  on  must  be  careful  to  beg  par- 
don. Each  is  supposed  to  be  at  the  service  of  the  other, 
and  besides  is  delighted  to  be  in  the  jiresence  of  his  friend 
or  superior;  hence  it  is  impolite  to  appear  to  be  in  a 
hurry  in  passing  on.  In  short,  to  be  in  a hurry,  except 
on  business  for  one’s  superior  or  lord,  was  always  a 
breach  of  good  manners.  Dignified,  slow,  and  meas- 
ured movements  were  the  outward  marks  of  a gentleman 
and  a scholar.  If  the  salutation  is  indoors,  then  it  is 
always  more  elaborate  and  decorous.  Indoors  the  par- 
ties are,  of  course,  down  upon  the  floor,  and  so,  being  in 
a kneeling  or  sitting  posture,  the  bows  must  be  lower 
and  salutations  more  elaborate.  If  marked  respect  is 
intended,  the  bowing  is  low  enough  to  touch  the  floor 
with  the  forehead;  meanwhile,  thanks  for  some  atten- 
tions or  kindness  received  in  the  past  must  be  made  in 
words  of  grateful  humility,  and  apologies  for  former 
rudeness,  or  for  not  making  an  earlier  call,  must  be  of- 
fered. Shaking  hands  was  never  practiced  until  re- 
cently, nor  was  kissing  ever  considered  good  form. 

Tea  is  always  served  to  guests.  The  guest,  entering 
the  guest  room,  stops  at  the  lowest  mat,  the  mat  near- 
est where  he  entered.  The  host  will  insist  that  he  come 
up  higher — that  is,  nearer  to  the  tokonoma,  the  raised 
dais,  or  place  of  honor.  The  guest’s  good  breeding  and 
proper  regard  for  the  rank,  age,  or  position  of  his  host 
will  decide  how  far  up  lie  should  go.  Almost  imme- 
diately after  he  is  seated  a clapping  of  the  host’s  hands 
brings  the  servant  with  tea  canister  and  cups.  The  hi- 
bachi  and  kettle  are  probably  already  in  the  center  of 
the  room.  The  host  then  proceeds  to  make  and  serve 
the  tea,  which  the  guest  receives  with  a low  bow  and 


BIRTH  AND  REARING  OF  CHILDREN. 


179 


thanks.  The  tiny  teacups,  upon  small  oval-shaped  sau- 
cers, are  presented  and  received  in  polite,  prescribed 
form.  The  tea  is  brought  to  the  lips  and  sipped  lightly, 
but  with  noise,  the  noise  indicating  appreciation.  It  is 
impolite  to  take  more  than  a few  sips,  and  the  same  is 
true  of  sweetmeats.  In  leaving,  however,  the  sweet- 
meats, done  up  in  white  paper,  are  offered,  and  the 
guest  puts  them  into  his  sleeve,  with  thanks.  In  pre- 
paring the  tea,  setting  out  the  cups,  and  presenting  to 
the  guest,  the  point  is  to  make  every  movement  count, 
but  it  must  be  done  with  ease  and  grace  and  as  a matter 
of  natural  habit.  Any  unnecessary  movement  or  awk- 
wardness, in  any  polite  or  ceremonial  intercourse,  is  a 
breach  of  good  manners.  No  sugar  or  milk  is  served 
with  the  tea. 

Birth  and  Bearing  of  Children. — We  speak  only  of 
customs  observed  by  high-class  people.  It  is  the  cus- 
tom to  dress  up  the  newborn  babe  in  beautiful  clothes, 
and  it  is  fashionable  to  put  on  a cap.  On  a certain  day 
the  mother  takes  the  child  to  the  temple,  where  the 
shaven  priest  gives  to  it  a charmed  name.  On  the 
seventy-fifth  or  one  hundredth  day  the  baby  linen  is 
left  off,  and  this  day  is  kept  as  a holiday.  On  the  one 
hundred  and  twentieth  day  the  weaning  ceremony  is  ob- 
served. It  is  not  the  actual  weaning  from  the  mother’s 
breast.  If  a boy,  the  child  is  presented  to  the  sponsor 
or  weaning  father,  who,  receiving  it  upon  his  left 
knee,  takes  rice  which  has  been  offered  to  the  gods, 
dips  his  chopsticks  thrice  into  the  rice  and  jjlaces  it  in 
the  mouth  of  the  child,  pretending  to  feed  it.  The 
same  is  done  with  five  rice  cakes.  This  over,  the  child 
is  handed  back  to  his  parent  or  guardian,  and  the  spon- 
sor presents  three  cups  of  wine,  drinking  himself  and 
offering  to  the  child.  After  this  the  child  receives  a 


(180) 


THE  BABIES  AND  TIIEIR  NURSES. 


REARING  OF  CHILDREN. 


181 


present  from  his  sponsor.  Dried  fish  is  then  brought 
in  and  there  is  more  passing  of  the  wine  cup.  A pres- 
ent is  made  by  the  babe  to  the  sponsor,  and  then  a 
family  feast  is  spread,  according  to  the  means  of  the 
family.  If  the  child  is  a girl,  then  the  sponsor  is  a 
woman.  From  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  eleventh  month 
of  the  third  year  two  locks  of  hair,  one  on  each  side 
just  in  front  of  the  ears  and  one  at  the  back  of  the 
head,  are  allowed  to  grow.  Up  to  this  time  the  whole 
head  has  been  kept  shaven,  but  now  the  ceremony  of 
the  hair  cutting  takes  place.  On  this  occasion  also  a 
sponsor  is  chosen,  and  seven  prescribed  articles  are 
brought  on  a large  tray:  comb,  scissors,  thread,  seven 
rice  straws,  etc.  The  child  is  placed  facing  the  point 
of  compass  supposed  to  be  lucky  for  that  year,  and  the 
sponsor  with  scissors  makes  three  snips  each  of  the  hair 
upon  the  two  temples  and  the  center.  Then  follows 
certain  emblematical  tying  of  hair,  drinking  of  wine, 
and  so  on.  On  the  fifth  day,  eleventh  month,  fourth 
year,  the  child  is  invested  with  the  licikama , the  loose 
trousers  worn  by  the  Samurai.  The  child  on  this  occa- 
sion receives  a dress  of  ceremony  embroidered  with 
storks,  tortoises,  fir  trees,  and  bamboos.  The  stork 
and  tortoise  symbolize  long  life;  the  pine  tree,  an  un- 
changing heart;  the  bamboo,  an  upright  and  straight 
mind.  In  the  fifteenth  year,  a lucky  day  being  chosen, 
the  most  important  ceremony  of  all  takes  place:  that 
which  places  the  son  among  full-grown  men.  A per- 
son of  virtuous  character  is  chosen  to  perform  it.  A 
tray  and  earthenware  wine  cup  are  brought,  whereupon 
sundry  ceremonies  of  drinking  wine,  and  cutting  and 
tying  up  the  hair  after  the  fashion  of  a man  are  per- 
formed. It  is  on  this  day  he  receives  his  name — i.  e ., 
his  name  as  a man.  A high-class  man  of  the  olden  times 


182  japan:  country,  court,  people. 

had  three  names:  (1)  his  real  name,  known  only  to  the 
family  and  intimates;  (2)  the  child  name,  known  only 
to  the  community;  and  (3)  the  man  name.  The  man 
name  is  frequently  changed,  as  was  the  custom  in  Bible 
times. 

Schooling. — In  the  old  times  learning  to  write  Chinese 
characters  was  the  principal  part  of  a child’s  education, 
and  required  years  of  diligent  application.  Only  the 
children  of  the  upper  classes  had  leisure  enough  for  this. 
The  schools  must  have  been  noisy,  as  the  children  had  to 
sing  out  the  characters  as  they  wrote  them  stroke  by 
stroke,  to  prevent  them  from  talking  or  meddling  with 
one  another’s  tasks.  During  the  Middle  Ages  education 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  Buddhist  priesthood.  The  tem- 
ples were  the  schools.  The  accession  of  the  Tokugawa 
Shogunate  (1603)  brought  a great  change.  The  educated 
classes  became  Confucianists.  Accordingly  the  Con- 
fucian  classics  were  held  in  great  honor,  learned  by 
heart,  commented  upon  as  carefully  as  in  China  itself. 
Besides  the  classics,  instruction  was  given  in  Chinese 
history,  Japanese  history,  and  literature.  Education, 
as  a rule,  was  confined  to  the  military  and  noble  class- 
es. The  women  of  course  got  less. 

Marriage  Ceremonies. — The  marriage  ceremonies  were 
various,  depending  upon  the  rank  and  means  of  the 
family.  As  it  was  in  Bible  times,  the  choosing  of  a 
wife  was  a matter  arranged  by  the  parents  through  a 
“go-between.”  The  young  men  and  maidens  of  Amer- 
ica little  realize  what  extraordinary  privileges  they  en- 
joy. Such  liberties  as  pleasant  walks,  drives,  accom- 
panying one’s  sweetheart  to  church  or  public  enter- 
tainment, or  spending  an  hour  in  the  parlor  with  a 
young  lady  friend  is  unknown  in  Japan.  According 
to  Japanese  etiquette,  a girl  from  the  early  age  of  ten 


MARRIAGE  CUSTOMS. 


183 


must  not  associate  or  play  with  the  boys,  but  only  with 
the  girls,  and  must  not  talk  to  any  young  man  except 
her  brothers;  and  as  for  receiving  a gentleman  friend, 
never!  When  going  out  she  is  always  accompanied  by 
her  mother  or  maid.  Marriage  in  Japan  could  not,  as 
a rule,  be  for  love,  for  the  reason  that  the  young  man 
and  lady  have  little  or  no  acquaintance  with  each  other 
before  betrothal,  probably  having  not  so  much  as  spoken 
to  each  other.  So  that  such  a thing  as  a young  man  seek- 
ing the  heart  and  hand  of  a young  lady  whom  he  loves 
is  little  known  among  that  people.  The  only  excep- 
tion is  where  a young  man  has  seen  a young  lady  upon 
the  street  with  her  mother  and  thinks  he  likes  her,  though 
probably  he  has  never  spoken  to  her  in  his  life.  He 
may  place  at  the  entrance  to  her  house  or  apartments  a 
flowering  plant  in  a pot.  If  it  is  left  to  wither,  he 
knows  his  hopes  are  vain;  if  it  flourishes,  he  knows 
that  her  parents  are  willing  to  entertain  negotiations 
for  the  betrothal  of  their  daughter.  The  next  thing  is 
to  get  his  father  to  send  the  “go-between”  to  see  about 
it.  But  even  in  this  case  the  rigid  rules  forbid  the  ro- 
mance and  pleasure  of  courtship.  Hot  even  by  corre- 
spondence is  the  young  man  permitted  to  address  the 
young  lady.  It  is  only  among  the  lowest  classes  that 
there  is  freedom  of  the  sexes. 

After  the  “go-between”  has  found  a suitable  young 
lady  for  the  son  of  his  friend,  an  opportunity  is  some- 
times given  by  mutual  arrangement  to  get  a look  at  the 
girl  he  has  never  seen.  This  meeting  is  called  the 
“look-at-each-other  meeting.”  There  are  three  occa- 
sions for  this:  at  the  home  of  the  girl,  upon  the  bridge, 
and  at  the  theater.  But  in  each  case  the  father  or 
mother  is  present.  In  fact,  the  girl  is  so  bashful  she 
could  hardly  speak  to  the  young  man  even  should  she 


184 


PEOl’LE. 


japan:  (’ountky,  couUt, 

desire  to  do  so.  But  there  are  thousands  of  cases  where 
the  arrangements  are  made  without  consulting  the 
young  people.  In  such  cases,  alas  for  the  young  man 
who  knows  nothing  about  the  girl  who  is  to  be  his  wife, 
except  what  the  “go-between”  or  parents  may  tell  him! 
Is  she  fat  or  slender,  pretty  or  ugly,  smart  or  stupid, 
good-natured  or  sharp-tongued?  Alas  also  for  the  girl 
who  knows  as  little  about  the  man  who  is  to  be  her  hus- 
band! It  is  nearer  the  truth  to  say  that  love  is  not 
known  in  Japanese  marriage  till  afterwards,  and  in  many 
cases  never.  Marriage  is  for  another  motive,  the  per- 
petuity of  the  family  name.  In  feudal  times  no  greater 
punishment  could  befall  a family  than  to  become  extinct. 
Hence  the  one  aim  of  every  girl  is  marriage,  and  the 
one  supreme  qualification  for  her  mission  is  amiable 
obedience.  This  universal  desire  to  perpetuate  the 
family  name  led  to  the  custom  of  adopting  a son  in  case 
no  son  is  bom  in  the  house.  Frequently  the  adoption 
takes  place  early,  and  the  adopted  child  is  at  once 
betrothed  to  the  daughter  and  both  are  brought  up  to- 
gether. The  custom  of  adoption  prevails  from  the  im- 
perial family  down,  and  complicates  names  and  kin- 
ship. Many  a Biblical  scholar,  discussing  the  question 
of  Christ’s  genealogy  as  given  by  St.  Matthew  and  St. 
Luke,  might  learn  a few  useful  things  were  he  to  study 
more  carefully  the  subject  of  family  succession  and 
adoption  among  Oriental  nations.  Some  so-called 
“difficulties”  would  disappear,  for  the  difficulties  lie 
not  so  much  in  the  genealogy  as  in  the  mind  of  certain 
scholars. 

As  a rule  children  are  not  betrothed  so  young  as  in 
India,  and  yet  in  most  cases  years  elapse  before  the 
union  is  consummated.  If  the  girl  be  ugly,  stupid,  or 
very  .poor,  her  parents  may  have  to  wait  a good  while 


MARRIAGE  CUSTOMS. 


185 


before  receiving  proposals  for  her  betrothal.  After  the 
fathers  on  both  sides  have  agreed  to  the  betrothal  the 
next  step  is  to  seal  it  by  exchanging  presents,  which 
consist  of  wine,  dried  fish,  and  a silk  robe.  The  day 
selected  for  the  wedding  must  be  a lucky  day,  there  be- 
ing certain  days  on  which  no  Japanese  would  be  willing 
to  be  married.  When  the  fixed  day  comes  around  the 
bride  sends  beforehand,  by  her  own  maids,  whatever 
she  is  to  take  to  her  husband’s  home.  It  is  said  there 
is  considerable  expense  for  a wedding  outfit  of  dresses 
sufficient  to  last  her  for  many  years.  A proverb  says: 
‘ ‘ Though  a man  be  rich,  if  he  have  three  daughters  he 
will  become  poor  in  marrying  them  off.”  Weddings  in 
Japan  never  take  place  in  the  morning,  but  only  in  the 
evening.  Again,  with  us  the  bridegroom  joins  the 
bride  at  her  father’s  house  for  the  marriage,  but  in 
Japan  the  bride  is  brought  in  a sedan  chair  to  the  house 
of  the  groom’s  father.  A little  fire  having  been  kin- 
dled at  the  door  and  matting  spread  upon  the  ground, 
she  leaves  her  father’s  house  and  enters  the  closed  sedan 
chair,  borne  upon  the  shoulders  of  men.  Her  parents, 
the  “go-between,”  the  retainers  of  the  bridegroom  who 
are  sent  to  welcome  her,  and  a few  servants  follow. 
The  servants  carrying  presents  to  the  groom  s family 
bear  brightly  burning  lanterns  with  the  crest  of  the 
bride’s  family  upon  them.  The  bride  will  be  treated 
by  her  husband’s  servants  according  to  the  presents, 
hence  her  father  sends  presents  to  every  member  of  the 
groom’s  family,  servants  included.  The  marriage  cere- 
mony in  olden  Japan  was  not  celebrated  by  priests  with 
prayers,  vows,  and  blessings.  It  is  not  a religious  but 
a domestic  and  social  function. 

Briefly  the  marriage  is  as  follows:  The  wedding  room 
is  always  decorated,  especially  the  tokonoma,  with 


186  japan:  country,  court,  people. 

pine,  bamboo,  and  plum  blossoms  in  vases,  and  three 
picture  scrolls  hanging  on  the  wall  just  behind  the  to- 
konoma.  In  the  middle  of  the  room  is  placed  a white 
wooden  table  and  upon  it  an  artificial  dwarf  pine,  and 
at  either  end  an  old  man  and  woman — dolls  dressed 
in  ancient  style.  This  decoration  signifies  wishes  for 
long  life  and  prosperity  to  the  couple.  The  moment 
having  arrived,  the  groom  is  seated  upon  a mat  in  front 
of  the  tokonoma,  the  seat  of  honor,  waiting  in  a solemn 
manner;  his  bride  then  enters,  moving  slowly  and  grace- 
fully, takes  a seat  next  to  him;  and  then  the  “ go-be- 
tween sit  down  in  front  of  the  couple.  By  the  bride’s 
side  sits  two  married  ladies  or  two  little  girls.  The 
bride  is  dressed  in  a long  white  silk  robe,  heavily  inter- 
lined, over  an  under  dress  of  white,  with  a thick  white 
veil  that  falls  down  upon  her  as  a mantle.  Generally 
a lady’s  sleeve  is  one  foot  four  inches,  but  the  sleeves 
of  wedding  dresses  are  two  feet  five  inches;  and  the 
silk  sash,  richly  embroidered  in  gold,  is  eleven  feet  long 
and  is  wound  around  her  many  times.  Her  tabif  “half 
hose,”  with  divided  big  toe,  are  also  of  white  silk. 
Says  Mr.  Tamura,  from  whom  these  points  are  quoted: 
“Any  Japanese  lady  dressed  in  this  way  will  be  pretty, 
becoming,  and  attractive.”  The  groom  also  wears  the 
ceremonial  dress  made  of  silk  in  colors  according  to  his 
rank.  All  being  quietly  seated,  two  voices  singing  a 
low  Japanese  song  will  be  heard  from  the  next  room,  and 
this  will  continue  through  the  ceremony.  A low  white 
wood  stand  is  now  brought  in  bearing  three  flat  cups 
placed  each  upon  the  other.  This  being  placed  in  front 
of  the  bride,  one  of  the  bridesmaids  pours  a little 
sake  from  a wine  jar  decorated  with  two  butterflies. 
The  smallest  of  the  cups  being  passed  to  the  bride,  she 
takes  three  sips  and  hands  it  to  the  groom;  then 


ANOKayao  omickisiav 


(1ST) 


188 


japax:  country,  court,  people. 


follow  the  second  and  third  cups.  During  the  passing 
of  these  cups,  perfect  solemnity  prevails,  because  the 
drinking  of  the  sake  together  signifies  that  the  couple 
will  share  both  joy  and  sorrow.  When  the  third  cup 
is  drunk  the  ‘ ‘ go-between  ” announces  to  the  parents 
and  friends  that  they  are  properly  married. 

A great  feast  is  now  spread  in  the  same  room,  and  the 
bride,  having  retired  to  change  her  dress,  reappears  and 
sits  by  her  husband’s  side  with  uncovered  face.  This 
is  the  most  elaborate  and  expensive  of  all  their  feasts. 
Meanwhile  everybody  comes  and  bows  down  before  the 
couple,  making  congratulations.  Wine  cups  are  ex- 
changed for  further  good  wishes  by  parents  and  rela- 
tions. At  this  feast  clam  soup  is  always  served.  The 
feasting  continues  to  a late  hour;  and  when  all  are  gone, 
and  the  couple  have  retired  to  their  room,  another  cup 
of  wine  is  exchanged  between  them  in  the  presence  of 
the  “go-between’s”  wife,  and  this  ends  the  ceremony. 
The  reader  has  doubtless  noted  the  important  part 
played  by  the  “go-between”  all  through  from  the  be- 
trothal to  the  end.  For  this  he  gets  no  fixed  fee,  but  is 
handsomely  rewarded  with  a present;  and  if  he  does 
not  get  what  he  thinks  he  ought  to  have  had,  he  will 
come  often  to  borrow  money. 

The  married  woman  changes  her  name,  the  new  name 
being  registered  in  the  government  office.  Other 
changes  mark  her  now  as  a married  woman.  First,  she 
changes  the  style  of  her  hair.  There  is  but  one  style 
for  a married  lady.  Japanese  women  did  not  dress 
their  own  hair,  nor  do  they  do  it  now,  but  pay  a hair- 
dresser from  two  to  eight  cents  per  week.  They  never 
wear  bonnets  or  earrings,  but  hair  jewels,  small  combs 
of  gold,  silver,  coral,  or  tortoise,  often  very  costly  and 
beautiful.  Secondly,  the  married  woman  changes  her 


AFTER  THE  WEDDING. 


189 


dress  for  one  of  grave  colors.  Married  Japanese  ladies 
never  dress  gayly  like  many  American  women  do  wlio 
are  even  beyond  fifty  years.  However  rich  and  costly 
the  material,  it  is  made  up  in  the  same  plain  and  taste- 
ful way  as  any  other  dress.  The  modest,  elegant  sim- 
plicity of  a high-class  lady’s  costume  in  Japan  is  wor- 
thy of  admiration.  Only  women  of  had  reputation 
wear  gay  and  flashy  clothes.  Thirdly,  she  must  shave 
her  eyebrows,  to  show  that  she  is  not  single  but  mar- 
ried. This  is  certainly  an  ugly  custom.  Fourthly, 
she  must  blacken  her  teeth,  which  also  disfigures  the 
woman  no  little.  The  blackened  teeth  are  explained 
to  be  a mark  of  subjection  to  her  husband.  This  cus- 
tom is  now  becoming  obsolete. 

There  is  no  honeymoon  for  a Japanese  bride  and 
groom.  They  take  no  bridal  tour;  but  from  the  very 
first  the  bride  must  rise  early,  see  her  mother-in-law  and 
her  father-in-law,  and  ask  how  they  rested,  etc.;  and 
must  mingle  freely  with  the  servants  and  make  herself 
immediately  useful  in  household  affairs.  The  truth  is, 
she  has  become  a daughter  and  a helper  in  her  mother- 
in-law’s  house.  It  is  good  form  for  the  bride  and  groom 
to  be  at  first  reserved  in  manner  toward  each  other  in 
the  presence  of  the  family  and  not  show  much  affection. 
She  comes  among  strangers  who  are  observing  closely 
her  every  step,  and  she  has  to  prove  herself  acceptable  to 
the  family  by  her  amiable  obedience.  The  trying  cir- 
cumstances of  her  case  are  explained  by  saying  that,  in 
a sense,  she  has  married  the  whole  family — that  is,  she 
must  please  them  all,  and  obey  not  only  her  new  hus- 
band, to  whom  she  is  a stranger,  but  her  mother-in-law, 
father-in-law,  and  her  husband’s  elder  brother.  After 
the  seventh  day  she  may  make  a visit  to  her  father’s 
house;  but  this  over,  she  returns  to  her  mother-in-law, 


190 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


and  does  not  go  to  housekeeping  with  her  husband  in  a 
separate  home.  In  a good  many  instances  all  will  be 
sweet  and  lovely,  but  in  many  cases  the  mother-in-law 
exercises  strict  and  rightful  control  (in  Japan  so  con- 
sidered) over  her  new  daughter-in-law. 

This  leads  to  the  subject  of  divorce.  We  would  not 
make  the  impression  that  there  are  no  happy  homes  in 
that  land,  but  we  do  affirm  that  the  position  of  the  wife 
in  Japan  is  by  no  means  so  desirable  as  in  America. 
If  the  young  wife  fails  to  satisfy  the  demands  and  ex- 
pectations concerning  her  as  a member  of  her  father-in- 
law’s  family,  she  may  be  divorced  at  once  and  sent  back 
to  her  father’s  house.  Among  the  seven  causes  for  di- 
vorce, we  mention:  (1)  disobedience  to  her  husband’s 
parents;  (2)  no  child;  (3)  jealousy;  (4)  a sharp  and 
gossiping  tongue;  and  so  on.  Apart  from  all  this,  if  her 
husband  dislikes  her,  he  may  at  any  time  divorce  her. 
In  some  cases  she  is  divorced  because  her  mother-in-law 
dislikes  her.  Only  two  or  three  years  ago  the  statistics 
showed  that  for  that  year  the  number  of  divorces  was 
one- third  the  marriages!  But  even  if  the  husband  does 
not  divorce  his  wife,  he  may  have  at  the  same  time  a 
sort  of  second  wife,  supporting  her  and  visiting  her  in 
another  place.  Many  other  things  might  here  be  men- 
tioned, but  suffice  it  to  say,  the  standard  of  marriage  in 
Japan  is  low,  and  the  wife’s  position  would  be  consid- 
ered very  hard  by  our  American  women.  Plurality  of 
wives,  or  concubinage,  brings  poison  and  not  peace  into 
the  home.  In  Japan,  China,  and  other  idolatrous 
countries  these  things  have  been  practiced  a long  time. 

Funeral  Customs. — Originally  the  dead  were  disposed 
of  by  burial,  but  after  700  A.D.  the  custom  of  burning 
was  introduced  by  Buddhist  priests,  and  thenceforth 
both  were  practiced.  There  was  in  feudal  times,  and 


FUNERAL  CUSTOMS. 


191 


still  is,  much  difference  in  the  ceremonials  of  different 
sects.  W e condense  an  account  of  a funeral  as  given  by  an 
eyewitness  a long  time  ago.  The  body,  carefully  washed 
and  head  shaven,  was  dressed  exactly  as  in  life,  and 
placed  with  head  to  the  north  upon  a mat,  in  front  of 
the  butsudan  (god  altar)  and  covered  with  a white  cloth. 
Food  is  offered  it,  and  all  the  family  lament.  During 
the  night  candles  are  kept  lighted,  incense  is  burned, 
and  a feast  with  wine  drinking  is  given  to  the  watchers 
and  witnesses  after  the  fashion  of  an  Irish  wake.  At 
the  appointed  hour  the  priests  come  in  to  chant  the 
prayers  and  readings,  an  assistant  striking  meanwhile 
with  measured  strokes  a small  gong.  The  sound  of  the 
gong  mingling  with  the  chanting  of  the  priests  produces 
an  impressively  solemn  effect  upon  a foreigner  at  least. 
The  eldest  son  and  others  of  the  family  burn  incense  at 
this  time.  The  body  having  been  put  into  a tub-shaped 
coffin  of  white  wood,  placed  in  the  tub  in  a sitting  pos- 
ture, is  now  borne  from  the  house  in  a square  bier  or 
closed  sedan  chair,  which  is  suspended  from  poles  and 
carried  upon  the  shoulders  of  men.  The  funeral  proces- 
sion is  different  from  anything  seen  in  our  country.  At 
the  head  move  the  men,  some  carrying  flowers  and  ever- 
greens, others  banners  and  lanterns.  Sometimes  a large 
cage  with  doves  is  drawn  upon  wheels.  These  birds 
are  to  be  liberated  at  the  grave.  Two  tablets  are  car- 
ried after  the  bier  with  appropriate  inscriptions  to  the 
dead,  the  date  of  his  death,  and  the  new  name  now  giv- 
en him  by  the  priests.  Following  the  tablets  and  bier, 
all  on  foot,  or  riding  in  jinrikushas,  is  the  procession  of 
mourners,  servants,  friends,  and  acquaintances,  and  the 
priest  in  robes.  The  mourners,  bearers,  and  all  female 
attendants  are  dressed  in  white.  The  mourners  are 
hired  women,  according  to  Bible  custom.  The  eldest 


192 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


son  wears  a rush  hat  that  hangs  down  upon  his  shoul- 
ders. At  the  neighboring  mortuary  temple  further  cer- 
emonies by  the  priest  are  performed,  incense  is  burned 
and  obeisance  made  to  the  wooden  tablet,  mentioned 
above.  After  this  the  body  is  either  buried  or  burned. 
If  burned,  it  is  taken  to  a furnace  prepared  for  the  pur- 
pose under  a pavilion,  in  a hut,  or.  in  the  open,  where 
the  lire  is  ignited  by  the  son  or  nearest  relation,  the 
priest  chanting  a litany  or  hymn. 

One  thing  painfully  evident,  and  mentioned  by  Rein, 
is,  that,  while  the  priest  and  mourners  conduct  the  cere- 
monies with  outward  solemnity,  the  rest  of  the  compa- 
ny display  strange  lightness  and  curiosity.  That  sym- 
pathetic solemnity  and  silent  reverence  to  which  we  are 
accustomed  are  lacking  at  a pagan  funeral.  Another 
strange  circumstance  is,  that  the  seniors  of  the  family 
do  not  attend  the  funeral  of  the  juniors;  for  example, 
if  the  second  or  third  son  dies,  neither  father,  mother, 
elder  brother,  nor  uncle  can  go  out. 

The  mourning  period,  formerly  very  long,  was  ob- 
served in  three  ways:  by  staying  at  home,  by  wearing 
mourning  garments,  and  by  abstaining  from  wine  and 
flesh.  For  parents  or  for  husband,  the  mourning  gar- 
ments were  worn  thirteen  months;  for  a wife,  ninety 
days;  abstinence  from  flesh  was  for  fifty  and  twenty 
days  respectively.  The  inferior  position  of  woman  in 
the  East  accounts  for  the  difference  in  the  mourning 
period. 

Government  oflicials  were  excused  from  staying  at 
home  during  the  mourning  period,  and  laboring  classes 
mourned  only  three  days.  When  a member  of  the  im- 
perial family  dies  a notification  is  sent  through  the  land 
prohibiting  music,  singing,  or  the  making  of  ifiirth  for 
a certain  period.  The  whole  nation  is  supposed  to  be 


HONORING  THE  DEAD. 


193 


in  deep  grief.  Recently,  when  the  Empress  Dowager 
died,  even  singing  in  family  and  chapel  worship  ceased 
among  the  Christians  during  the  prescribed  time. 

After  the  funeral,  one  of  the  inscribed  tablets  men- 
tioned previously  is  placed  upon  the  gravestone,  under 
which  the  urn  containing  a few  bones  and  ashes  of  the 
dead  is  buried.  The  other  tablet  is  set  upon  the  god 
altar  in  the  house,  and  tea,  sweetmeats,  etc. , are  placed 
before  it.  Morning  and  evening  food  is  offered,  and 
lights  are  kept  burning  day  and  night  during  the  mourn- 
ing period.  The  whole  household  is  supposed  to  pray 
before  it  morning  and  night.  At  stated  times  the  priest 
comes  to  chant  prayers,  for  which  he  receives  a small 
fee.  In  recent  times  these  usages  are  not  so  strictly  ob- 
served. On  certain  days  as  the  7th,  14th,  and  21st,  and 
on  the  first  and  third  anniversaries  of  the  death,  visits 
must  be  made  to  the  grave  to  pray  and  to  burn  incense. 
Other  customs  in  honor  of  the  dead  need  not  detain  us 
further,  except  to  say  that  on  the  15th  of  July  a yearly 
festival  in  honor  of  dead  ancestors  is  kept.  At  this 
time  the  spirits  of  their  dead  forefathers  are  believed 
to  come  back  and  their  ihai  (ancestral  tablets)  are  taken 
out  of  their  cases  and  set  in  order,  that  food,  consisting 
of  fruits  and  vegetables,  may  be  placed  before  them, 
incense  burned,  and  flowers  offered.  On  the  14th  a 
regular  meal  of  rice,  tea,  etc. , is  served  to  the  tablets  as 
to  living  guests.  In  the  evening  lanterns  hung  upon 
bamboo  poles  are  lighted  before  each  grave,  and  this  is 
repeated  on  the  15th  evening.  On  the  16tli,  before  day- 
break, all  the  articles  placed  at  the  graves  are  packed  into 
little  boats  made  of  straw  with  paper  sails  and  carried  in 
procession  with  music  and  loud  cries  to  the  water’s  edge, 
where,  being  launched  on  the  waters,  the  souls  of  the 
dead  are  thus  dismissed  to  return  to  their  abodes.  This 
13 


194  japan:  country,  court,  people. 

festival,  called  the  “feast  of  lanterns,”  is  still  observed 
with  great  enthusiasm  and  display  at  Nagasaki.  From 
the  foregoing  we  see  that  ancestral  worship  is  an  im- 
portant part  of  the  religion  of  the  Japanese. 

Hara  Jciri  means  suicide  by  disemboweling.  This  re- 
volting custom  probably  originated  during  the  dark, 
warring  days  of  the  Middle  Ages.  In  those  cruel  times 
every  Japanese  warrior  knew  that  if  he  fell  into  the 
hands  of  his  enemies  in  battle  his  head  would  be  cut  off, 
but  before  being  killed  some  indignity  would  be  heaped 
upon  him  which  he  would  be  helpless  to  resist;  and  the 
taking  of  his  own  life  was  the  last  desperate  act  to  avoid 
falling  alive  into  the  hands  of  his  victors.  It  came  to 
be  a universal  custom  for  every  Samurai  to  carry  two 
swords,  the  short  one  for  performing  hara  Jciri  in  case 
of  emergency.  Starting  in  this  way,  it  came  to  pass 
afterwards  that  retainers  took  their  own  lives  under  cer- 
tain circumstances  to  prove  their  fidelity  to  their  chief. 
If  he  had  made  some  serious  blunder,  had  failed  to  carry 
out  some  command,  and  thus  brought  defeat  or  disaster 
upon  his  chief,  he  purged  himself  of  suspicion  of  treachery 
by  dying  from  his  own  hand.  There  grew  up  gradually 
a code  of  honor,  in  which  hara  Jciri  had  an  important 
place.  As  it  was  in  the  days  of  the  duel  code  in  certain 
circles  in  our  own  Southland  before  the  late  civil  war, 
so  no  Japanese  Samurai  could  endure  an  insult,  but 
must  demand  satisfaction;  and  if  is  not  given,  must 
avenge  himself  and  maintain  his  own  honor  as  a gentle- 
man by  slaying  the  man  who  had  insulted  him.  But 
ofttimes,  in  avenging  himself  upon  his  enemy,  he  vio- 
lated some  law  of  the  Shogun’s  government;  and  hence, 
as  soon  as  he  had  slain  his  enemy  he  must  take  his  own 
life,  else  be  arrested  and  put  to  death  by  the -govern- 
ment. Women,  too,  wives  and  daughters  of  the  military 


THE  RONINS. 


195 


nobility,  carried  a halberd  in  their  belts,  and  from  their 
childhood  were  instructed  how  to  use  it.  Several  in- 
stances are  on  record  of  a vile  brute  being  instantly  killed 
by  one  of  these  women.  Many  are  the  cases,  likewise, 
of  lovers  who,  being  prevented  from  marrying,  or  one  of 
them  being  in  danger  of  arrest  for  some  fatal  deed,  pre- 
ferred to  die  together  than  to  live  separated.  As  the 
years  went  on,  it  seems  that  the  horror  of  death  was 
less  dreaded,  and  suicide  became  easier;  hence  disap- 
pointments and  failures  of  divers  kinds  frequently  led 
to  this  form  of  suicide.  What  was  at  first  a custom  be- 
came a privilege  granted  by  the  Shogun’s  government 
to  the  military  class,  consisting  of  Daimyos  and  their 
Samurai;  that  is  to  say,  when  one  of  them  was  guilty 
of  a crime  punishable  by  death,  the  privilege  was  granted 
him  of  dispatching  himself  in  the  presence  of  an  officer 
sent  to  witness  it.  In  this  way  he  saved  his  honor  as  a 
Samurai,  and  prevented  social  disgrace  from  falling 
upon  his  family. 

The  most  noted  instance  of  this  is  the  story  of  ‘ ‘ The 
Forty-Seven  Ronins.”  Ronin  means  “wave  man” — a 
Samurai  who,  having  lost  his  chief,  is  cast  adrift  upon 
the  waves.  The  story  of  “ The  Forty- Seven  Ronins  ” is 
a bloody  but  a heroic  one.  Their  vassal  chief,  Asana, 
Lord  of  Ako,  had  been  repeatedly  insulted  by  Lord 
Ivutsuke,  his  superior  in  rank,  and,  not  being  able  to 
brook  it  longer,  he  drew  his  sword  and  attempted  to  kill 
him  on  the  spot.  This  took  place  within  the  precincts 
of  the  Shogun’s  palace  at  Kamakura,  and  was  therefore 
a mortal  crime.  The  government  sentenced  Asana  to 
death,  together  with  forfeiture  of  his  castle  and  the 
downfall  of  his  house,  but  granted  him  the  privilege  of 
committing  Kara  Jciri.  This  he  promptly  did  in  his  own 
mansion,  in  the  presence  of  two  officers,  and  his  re- 


196 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


tamers  at  once  became  ronin,  vassals  tossed  to  and  fro 
without  a chief.  They  were  scattered,  but  before  sep- 
arating, forty- seven  of  them  entered  into  covenant  to 
slay  their  dead  chief’s  enemy,  and  so  avenge  his  death. 
To  lull  suspicion  of  their  plot,  they  waited  a year,  and 
then  on  a winter’s  night  in  December  suddenly  gathered 
around  Kutsuke’s  mansion,  broke  into  it,  overpowered 
his  guards,  found  their  master’s  hated  enemy,  and  slew 
him.  Cutting  off  his  head,  they  marched  rapidly  to  the 
grave  of  their  chief,  Asana,  at  a temple  near  Yedo. 
Washing  the  head  at  a spring  near  by,  they  presented 
it  as  an  offering  to  their  dead  chief’s  spirit,  the  leader 
first,  and  then  the  rest  of  the  band,  burning  incense. 

Knowing  that  they  must  die,  the  leader  engaged  the 
abbot  of  the  temple,  giving  him  all  the  money  they  had, 
and  said:  “When  we  forty-seven  men  shall  have  per- 
formed harct  kiri , I beg  you  to  bury  us  decently.  I rely 
upon  your  kindness.  This  is  but  a trifle  that  I have  to 
offer;  such  as  it  is,  let  it  be  spent  in  masses  for  our 
souls.”  As  they  expected,  they  were  sentenced  to  com- 
mit Kara  kiri , and  handed  over  to  four  different  Dai- 
myos,  who  according  to  custom  were  to  see  the  sentence 
executed.  Their  corpses  were  carried  to  the  same  tem- 
ple, and  buried  in  front  of  the  tomb  of  their  chief. 
When  this  was  noised  abroad,  the  people  flocked  thither 
to  pray  at  the  graves  of  those  faithful  men,  and  reverent 
hands  still  deck  those  graves  with  green  boughs  and 
burn  incense  there.  The  armor  and  clothes  they  wore 
have  been  stored  in  a room  of  the  temple  as  relics. 
That  occurred  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago,  and  yet 
it  is  a story  very  fresh  in  the  admiration  of  the  Japa- 
nese. Nor  can  we  dissent  from  Mitford’s  words:  “This 
terrible  picture  of  fierce  heroism  it  is  impossible  not  to 
admire. 


SENTENCED  TO  DEATH  BY  IIAliA  KIRI. 


(197) 


198 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


As  to  the  ceremony  of  Kara  Jciri , much  has  been  writ- 
ten. It  is  carried  out  in  strict  order  of  minutest  rules 
and  usages.  F or  a description,  as  witnessed  by  Mitford 
at  Hiogo  in  1868,  see  “Tales  of  Old  Japan,”  p.  356. 
We  dismiss  this  disagreeable  subject  of  liara  kiri  with 
one  observation.  Repulsive  as  the  thing  is  to  us,  it 
proves  that  the  Japanese  esteem  some  things  as  more 
valuable  than  life  itself.  And  though  they  were  mis- 
taken in  thinking  they  had  a right  to  put  an  end  to  life 
by  their  own  hands,  and  may  have  been  mistaken  as  to 
what  those  things  were  that  they  counted  above  life,  we 
all  agree  that  there  are  things  worth  more  to  us  than 
bodily  life.  W e will  never  lay  violent  hands  upon  our 
own  body;  but  if  in  devotion  to  truth  and  duty — the 
service  of  God  and  our  fellow-men — we  have  to  die,  let 
us  die  bravely. 

In  the  olden  times  the  Japanese  were  a sentimental 
and  light-hearted  people.  The  upper  classes  had  plenty 
of  leisure  and  plenty  of  chivalry.  Work,  hurry,  and 
money,  in  those  romantic  feudal  times,  did  not  bother 
respectable  people.  The  land  is  of  volcanic  origin,  as 
we  saw  at  the  outset,  and  there  have  always  been,  and 
still  are,  many  volcanoes,  some  active,  some  silent;  but 
though  these  subterranean  fires  are  always  beneath  their 
feet  and  liable  to  burst  forth  at  any  hour,  they  have  al- 
ways been  merrily  indifferent  to  their  danger,  and  fre- 
quently go  forth  in  picnic  fashion  to  enjoy  the  sweets 
and  beauties  of  nature.  In  spite  of  terrific  earthquakes, 
floods,  and  pestilences,  that  from  time  to  time  come 
upon  them,  there  has  never  been  that  prosy  or  serious 
feeling  about  life  as  with  us.  It  is  to  be  feared,  how- 
ever, that  they  are  losing  some  of  their  light-hearted- 
ness, and  will  soon  be  addicted  to  hurry,  bustle,  and 
nervous  anxiety  to  make  money,  like  the  Americans. 


FLOWER  FESTIVAL. 


199 


It  lias  been  said  that  Japan  is  the  land  of  odorless 
flowers,  songless  birds,  tailless  cats,  and  babies  that 
never  cry — none  of  which  is  quite  correct.  The  flowers 
have  not  the  fragrance  that  ours  have;  still,  the  plum 
blossom,  wild  rose,  sweet- smelling  lilies,  and  cherry 
blossoms  do  exhale  some  fragrance.  While  their  flow- 
ers are  not  so  fragrant,  the  lack  is  more  than  made  up 
by  the  keener  appreciation  of  flowers  by  the  Japanese. 
Beauty  in  nature,  like  truth  in  the  Bible,  is  seen  and 
enjoyed  by  those  only  who  have  the  right  kind  of  eyes. 
So  fond  are  they  of  flowers  and  of  nature,  that  accord- 
ing to  the  season  they  have  been  accustomed  to  cel- 
ebrate for  generations  a number  of  flower  festivals. 
When  their  favorite  flower  is  in  season  multitudes  take 
holiday  and  go  forth  in  gala  dress  to  spend  the  day  vis- 
iting the  gardens  and  orchards  kept  for  the  purpose  in 
suburbs  of  cities  and  towns.  The  many  tea  houses  and 
pavilions  in  or  near  the  grounds  afford  opportunity  for 
looking  at  the  beautiful  blossoms,  meanwhile  sipping 
tea  and  enjoying  social  gossip. 

In  the  flower  calendar  there  is: 

1.  The  plum  blossom — last  of  March  to  June.  The 
plum,  coming  first,  is  greeted  with  joy.  It  introduces 
the  spring  with  red  and  white,  and  that  too  while  the 
branches  are  without  leaves. 

2.  The  cherry  trees  in  April  exhibit  a wealth  of  blos- 
soms in  white  and.  delicate  pink  tints.  In  and  around 
Tokyo,  and  other  places  as  well,  they  are  planted  in 
great  numbers  in  gardens  and  avenues  for  ornamental 
purposes.  These  blossoms  are  double  petaled  and  large, 
and  viewed  from  a distance  when  in  full  bloom  the 
trees  look  like  domes  or  banks  of  pure  snow;  nor  is 
the  effect  dispelled  when  you  draw  near,  for  you  are 
surprised,  if  a foreigner,  to  see  how  large  the  blossoms 


200 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


are  with  triple  petals  densely  set  reminding  one  of 
roses.  Besides  the  white,  there  are  the  most  delicate 
pink  blossoms.  When  the  moon  is  out  and  the  weather 
fair,  it  is  not  uncommon  among  the  Japanese  to  visit 
the  cherry  gardens  in  the  night  in  order  to  get  a differ- 
ent  effect.  Passing  by  the  wistaria  in  May,  the  peony 
tree  and  lilies  in  June  and  August,  and  the  sacred  lotus 
in  August,  we  have: 

3.  The  chrysanthemum  festival  in  October  to  Novem- 
ber. Says  Chamberlain  (“Things  Japanese,”  p.  119): 
“A.  curious  sight  is  to  be  seen  in  Tokyo  at  the  proper 
season.  It  consists  of  chrysanthemums  in  all  shapes — 
men  and  gods,  boats,  bridges,  castles,  etc.  Generally 
some  historical  or  mythical  scene  is  portrayed  or  some 
tableaux.”  But  it  is  into  the  Akasaka  palace  that  the 
elite  of  Tokyo  society  is  admitted  once  a year  to  gaze 
upon  chrysanthemums  which  those  who  once  see  will 
never  again  speak  about  chrysanthemums  in  New-  York 
or  London.  Not  only  in  Tokyo  but  everywhere  com- 
panies of  people  go  out  day  and  night  to  feast  their 
eyes  upon  the  chrysanthemum,  which  has  been  brought 
to  perfection  in  Japan  as  nowhere  else.  The  golden 
chrysanthemum  of  sixteen  petals  is  the  Emperor’s  crest, 
and  it  is  therefore  the  national  flower. 

4.  The  red  maples  from  November  to  December. 
The  Japanese  are  accustomed  to  class  red  leaves  un- 
der the  head  of  flowers,  and  in  the  last  of  autumn  the 
red  maple  leaves  glow  to  the  dying  year.  There  are 
also  varieties  of  the  maple  that  are  dwarfed,  and  have 
beautiful  red  leaves  not  only  in  the  autumn  but  when 
they  first  unfold  in  spring.  These  are  planted  for  or- 
nament in  temple  groves  and  are  greatly  enjoyed  by 
those  beauty-loving  people.  Besides  these  flower  festi- 
vals there  are  other  social  or  domestic  festivities  and 


FLOWER  FESTIVAL. 


201 


parties.  It  was  quite  common,  for  instance,  for  a well- 
to-do  family  to  go  out  to  a tea  house  where  with  feasting, 
punning,  music,  and  pantomime  the  whole  day  is  spent. 
On  such  occasions  geisha  (music  girls)  are  engaged  to 
add  to  the  merriment.  Many  of  the  tea  houses  are 
perched  upon  the  side  or  summit  of  a hill,  and  so  af- 
ford visitors  a magnificent  view  of  land  and  sea  at  once. 
In  some  sections  night  parties  are  accustomed  to  go  out 
to  see  the  rising  moon  and  the  silver  waters  of  the  sea. 
There  is  a favorite  resort  of  this  kind  outside  of  Tokyo. 

The  New  Year,  the  chief  social  and  domestic  festi- 
val, is  the  one  gala  season  of  all  the  year.  The  houses 
have  all  been  cleaned  beforehand,  evergreens  of  pine 
and  bamboo  have  been  planted  on  either  side  of  the 
door,  and  the  rope  of  rice  straw  twisted  into  five  or 
seven  strands  is  hung  over  the  entrance,  with  fruits  and 
vegetables  festooning  rope  and  bamboo.  The  rope 
separates  the  pure  from  the  impure  and  wards  off  the 
approach  of  evil  spirits;  the  pine  and  bamboo  are  sym- 
bols of  long  life  and  happiness;  the  fruits  signify  pros- 
perity. 

Every  person,  rising  early,  bathes  and  dons  new 
clothes,  greets  the  rising  sun  with  obeisance,  and  prays 
before  the  ihai,  the  ancestral  tablets  at  the  household 
altar,  and  offerings  of  food  and  drink  are  made  to  the 
gods.  Greetings  and  presents  are  exchanged  with  pleas* 
ant  countenance  and  hearty  wishes  for  good  luck  for  a 
thousand  years.  Rice  cake  of  a certain  kind  and  vege- 
tables all  consecrated  at  the  temple  are  eaten  on  New 
Year,  and  wine  with  spices  is  drunk.  No  other  people 
give  so  much  care  to  making  New  Year  calls.  No  peo- 
ple with  more  beautiful  courtesy  are  so  careful  to  re- 
turn thanks  to  friends,  benefactors,  and  superiors  for 
kindness  during  the  year  just  passed. 


202 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


Festival  of  Dolls , 3d  of  April. — -This  is  specially 
dedicated  to  the  girls,  and  the  whole  of  the  sex  appears 
on  this  day  in  holiday  garb,  and  mothers  devote  it  ex- 
clusively to  their  girls.  The  Japanese  were  accustomed 
to  store  away  among  the  heirlooms  of  the  family  their 
dolls,  so  on  this  day  they  are  brought  out  and  set  up  in 
order  in  the  best  room.  The  living  dolls  entertain  these 
inanimate  ones,  offering  them  both  food  and  drink.  In 
Tokyo,  especially  where  so  many  mammoth  dolls  are 
made,  the  doll  stores  make  a brilliant  display  at  this 
season,  and  are  crowded  with  eager  buyers.  The  mam- 
moth ones,  made  of  bisque  or  papier-mache,  are  sold  at 
high  figures;  the  wee  ones,  two  and  a half  cents.  “Some- 
times,” says  Mrs.  Bramwell,  writing  about  child  life  in 
in  Japan,  “one  meets  a flock  of  gayly  dressed  little 
maidens  going  out  to  tableaux,  their  faces  wreathed  in 
smiles  and  tongues  busily  chattering.  Upon  the  back 
of  each  merry  girl  is  strapped  a brilliantly  dressed  new 
doll  imitating  the  omnipresent  baby  that  sister  always 
carries  upon  her  back  when  she  goes  out  to  play  with 
other  sisters  in  the  street  or  temple  grove,  similarly 
mounted  and  strapped  with  babies.  And  where  are 
the  small  boys  on  that  day?  They  may  be  seen  in 
knots  on  the  corners,  sulking  or  pretending  indiffer- 
ence. because  it  is  not  their  day.” 

Feast  of  Flays  for  Boys , 5th  of  May. — Outside  of 
every  Japanese  dwelling  where  for  that  year  a male 
child  has  been  born,  a tall  pole  has  been  set  up  with  a 
paper  fish  floating  from  it  by  a cord  in  the  air.  These, 
some  of  them  fifteen  feet  long,  made  in  exact  shape  of 
a fish,  with  mouth,  eyes,  and  all,  properly  colored  and 
filled  with  air  and  floating  to  the  breeze,  announce  to 
the  neighbors  around  the  joy  of  the  family  in  having  a 
baby  boy.  In  a large  city  hundreds  of  them  may  be 


FESTIVALS  OF  DOLLS  AND  FLAGS. 


203 


seen  swimming  in  the  air  around  these  tall  poles.  This 
fish  is  the  carp,  and  is  said  to  he  the  strongest  fish  of  all, 
strong  enough  to  leap  up  over  the  waterfall  or  swim 
against  the  most  rapid  current,  and  with  so  much  forti- 
tude that  even  when  cut  in  half  it  still  moves  with 
strength  as  if  unhurt.  This  fish  then  symbolizes  the 
heroism  and  fortitude  which  the  parents  wish  their  boy 
to  have.  As  the  girls  were  given  new  dolls,  so  for  this 
May  festival  the  shops  display  all  sorts  of  images  of 
heroes,  generals,  soldiers,  genii  of  strength  and  valor, 
and  toys,  too,  representing  the  regalia  of  a Daimyo  in 
procession  with  all  kinds  of  things  used  in  battle.  The 
writer  has  seen  in  Tokyo  a company  of  boys  out  in  May 
drawing  along  the  streets  a two- wheeled  cart  with  a 
tall  framework  of  wood  upon  it,  and  at  the  very  top 
the  effigy  of  some  hero  or  patron  god  decked  out  as  a 
model  for  a boy’s  ambition.  Drums  and  streamers  en- 
liven the  sight — the  boys  were  happy. 

Although  the  Japanese  maybe  losing  some  of  their  for- 
mer light-heartedness,  still  there  are  many  games  which 
the  children  enjoy  immensely.  Gorgeous  displays  of 
things  pleasing  to  children  are  still  seen  in  some  of 
the  courts  and  streets  leading  to  the  celebrated  temples. 
Street  theatricals,  showmen,  fortune  tellers,  sleight-of- 
hand  performers,  tumblers,  story-tellers,  candy  ped- 
dlers, toy  sellers,  conjurers,  fire  eaters,  charmers,  and 
the  like,  are  slowly  disappearing  from  modern  Japan, 
but  what  will  take  their  place  is  the  question.  Among 
children’s  sports  and  games  we  mention  shuttlecock 
and  battledoor.  Upon  New  Year  this  is  the  universal 
game  for  girls.  Dressed  in  their  new  gay  clothes,  with 
powdered  faces  and  painted  lips,  and  hair  arranged  with 
greatest  care,  they  flock  out  into  the  open  air  and  spend 
hours  at  this  game.  Proud  of  her  skill,  one  girl  man- 


204 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


ages  two  or  three  shuttlecocks  at  the  same  time;  while 
one  is  being  tossed  up  two  others  are  coming  down  at  the 
proper  intervals.  They  are  also  fond  of  hopscotch  and 
various  finger  and  string  games,  counting  and  singing  as 
the  motions  and  clappings  are  gone  through  with. 

Kite  Flying.  — Our  American  boys  cannot  compare 
kites  with  the  Japanese.  Indeed,  when  the  Japanese 
fly  kites,  American  kites  are  not  there,  they  are  not  in 
sight,  they  are  not  to  be  mentioned.  Japanese  kites 
are  of  enormous  size,  with  tails  in  proportion,  are  of 
various  shapes  (hollow,  flat,  oblong,  and  square),  and 
are  variously  colored  and  decorated.  Moreover,  by  a 
series  of  strings  drawn  across  like  an  ASolian  harp, 
they  sing  while  they  fly.  This  is  a sport  in  which  men 
too  engage  with  zest,  especially  during  the  New  Year 
holidays.  They  are  sent  up  to  a very  great  height,  even 
the  large  ones  going  out  of  sight.  Sometimes  as  one 
walks  out  in  the  evening,  he  hears  from  the  heights 
above  deep  humming  sounds,  and  after  searching  the 
sky  he  finally  discovers  two,  three,  or  more  of  those 
mammoth  Aeolian  kites  almost  lost  to  sight.  Some- 
times again  the  sound  is  heard  as  a deep- toned  serenade 
from  the  upper  air,  but  the  kites  themselves  have  gone 
out  of  sight.  A few  years  ago  the  writer’s  wife  and 
daughter,  standing  on  a hill  in  Imaicho,  in  the  city  of 
Tokyo,  counted  three  hundred  kites  all  flying  at  the 
same  hour.  Two  things  stand  out  distinctly  upon  the 
field  of  his  memory,  witnessed  more  than  once  in  Ja- 
pan: one  is  the  sight  of  hundreds  of  white  fishing  sails 
dotting  the  smooth  surface  of  the  sea  in  the  early 
morning;  the  other  a fleet  of  kites  like  living  boats 
sailing  the  air  and  borne  up  against  the  sky  in  the 
evening. 

The  outdoor  sports  of  men  are  fencing,  target  shooting 


NOTES  ON  FARMING. 


205 


with  bow  and  arrow,  hunting,  fishing,  and  wrestling. 
Fencing  is  the  most  keenly  enjoyed  by  the  upper  classes, 
for  it  takes  them  back  to  their  old-time  native  life,  the 
handling  of  the  sword.  Wrestling  is  practiced  mostly 
by  a professional  class  of  fat  giant  men.  This  has  al- 
ways been  a great  sport  and  is  witnessed  by  the  multi  • 
tudes.  The  grounds  of  the  temple  are  the  most  fre- 
quent arena  for  this  sport.  It  is  said  that  wrestling 
was  originally  a sort  of  religious  exercise  and  was  in 
some  way  under  the  auspices  of  certain  temples  that  de- 
rived a portion  of  revenue  from  it.  It  is  considered  the 
highest  honor  among  the  guild  of  wrestlers  to  be  per- 
mitted to  wrestle  before  the  Emperor. 

Y.  Farming. 

Tokugawa  Iyeyasu,  founder  of  the  last  dynasty  of 
Shoguns,  in  one  of  his  eighteen  laws,  declares  that 
farming  was  given  by  the  sun  goddess  (Amaterasu). 
Her  temple  in  Ise  must  be  cared  for  and  rebuilt  of  new 
hinoJci  wood  every  twenty-one  years,  in  order  that  the 
land  might  have  peace  and  the  five  cereals  thrive.  In 
this  high  estimation  put  upon  agriculture  the  ancient 
Japanese  imitated  the  Chinese.  The  words  Kovia  Ku- 
ril no  Koto,  “farming  is  the  foundation  of  the  coun- 
try,” express  the  feelings  of  the  Japanese.  This  is 
clearly  proved  by  their  placing  the  farmer  in  higher 
social  rank  than  the  artisan  and  merchant.  During 
the  long  period  of  peace  from  the  year  1600  all  foreign 
commerce  was  restricted  so  as  almost  to  prohibit ' it, 
hence  the  energy  of  the  nation  was  turned  toward  farm- 
ing. And  it  was  during  this  period  that  the  land  was 
so  much  improved.  Rein  says  that,  while  the  taxes 
upon  the  soil  were  high  and  had  to  be  paid  in  kind, 
yet,  altogether,  the  lot  of  the  Japanese  peasant  was  a 


206  JAPAN : COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 

happier  one  than  that  of  the  peasants  of  Europe  during 
the  Middle  Ages. 

The  farming  system  of  Japan  may  he  briefly  de- 
scribed in  a few  sentences: 

1.  The  small  size  of  their  farms — from  a half  to  five 
acres. 

2.  Probably  the  most  perfect  system  of  irrigation 
and  terraces  in  the  world.  For  example,  immediately 
around  the  Kwansei  Gakuin,  amission  college  near  Kobe, 
the  writer  found  a network  of  connected  irrigating 
ditches  and  reservoirs  arranged  for  storing  the  water 
from  the  mountain  streams,  and  distributing  it  in  season 
to  the  rice  fields  lying  just  below  toward  the  sea.  On 
the  hillsides  for  half  a mile  up  level  plats  are  made  by 
digging  and  dragging  the  earth  from  the  upper  to  the 
lower  sides,  and  by  building  a stone  wall  on  the  lower 
side  of  each  plat  to  hold  the  earth.  Thus  the  water, 
as  soon  as  it  floods  one  plat,  is  led  into  the  one  just  be- 
low, and  so  on  until  all  are  covered  with  water.  In 
the  case  of  those  plats  down  on  the  shore  plain,  a mud 
wall  a foot  high  is  made,  and  through  a hole  or  notch 
made  in  this  mud  bank  the  water  is  led  from  one  plat 
to  another  till  all  are  flooded.  As  one  views  the  great 
stretches  of  continuous  rice  fields  extending  along  the 
shore  plain  for  miles,  and  crosswise  from  the  beach 
away  up  the  sides  of  the  hills,  and  all  flooded  with  wa- 
ter, the  landscape  is  a striking  one,  and  presents  a scene 
the  like  of  which  is  nowhere  seen  in  America.  These 
terrace  walls  and  level  plats,  numbered  by  hundreds, 
are  a triumph  of  the  patient  toil  and  industrial  skill  of 
the  Japanese. 

3.  The  rotation  of  crops.  In  one  year  three  crops  in 
succession,  Avheat  or  barley,  rice,  and  some  kind  of 
beans,  or  vegetables,  are  often  raised  in  the  same  plat. 


RICE  GROWING. 


207 


4.  The  fertilizing  is  a peculiar  system,  making  use  of 
what  with  us  usually  goes  into  the  sewage. 

5.  Japanese  farming  is  really  more  like  gardening, 
for  the  soil  is  worked  as  we  do  our  gardens. 

6.  The  tools  and  implements  are  primitive  and  rude. 
The  work  is  exceedingly  slow,  and  labor-saving  ma- 
chinery is  unknown.  We  are  told  that  in  California 
great  fields  of  wheat  are  mowed  down,  the  wheat 
threshed  out  and  filled  into  bags  by  the  same  huge  ma- 
chine as  it  rolls  along  propelled  by  steam.  A wagon 
follows  in  the  wake  picking  up  the  bags,  and  the  wheat 
is  ready  for  market.  But  in  Japan  the  little  patches 
of  wheat  or  barley  are  cut  handful  by  handfid  with  a 
sickle,  threshed  out  by  flails,  and  the  chaff  is  separated 
from  the  wheat  by  the  winnowing  fan  and  the  wind, 
reminding  us  of  the  4 4 winnowing  fan  ” and  the  4 4 wind 
that  blows  the  chaff  away,”  of  Bible  times. 

Rice  Growing. — As  stated  in  a former  section,  the 
staple  productions  of  the  soil  are  rice,  tea,  and  silk. 
Rice  planting  is  a great  time,  because  rice  is  to  them 
the  staff  of  life.  It  is  grown  in  nearly  every  province. 
After  wheat  harvest,  water  brought  down  from  the  res- 
ervoir through  a little  ditch,  or  by  a brook  flowing  di- 
rectly from  the  mountain,  is  led  into  the  small  fields  to 
soften  the  ground  for  plowing  and  harrowing.  Japan 
being  a narrow  country,  with  valleys,  plains,  and 
mountains  close  together,  it  is  easy  to  lead  down  the 
water  trenches  into  the  fields.  After  the  water  has 
softened  the  ground  somewhat,  the  farmer  with  his 
cow  (sometimes  a horse)  begins  to  plow,  and,  recross- 
ing, plows  again  and  again,  till  the  whole  is  muddy 
slush.  It  is  a strange  sight,  a man  with  a cow  plowing 
and  harrowing  in  water  six  inches  deep. 

Rice-planting  season  is  in  May,  and  men  and  women 


(208) 


RICE  PLANTING 


MCE  GROWING. 


209 


take  part  in  this  work.  Wading  around  in  the  water 
and  mud  all  the  day  cannot  he  pleasant  work,  hut  it  is 
said  they  often  sing  cheerful  songs.  The  little  plants 
are  brought  from  a hed  where  the  seed  was  sown  six 
weeks  before  in  a water-covered  place.  When  the 
plants  are  about  six  inches  high,  they  are  plucked  from 
-the  bed  and  transplanted  into  the  rice  plats  in  rows  as 
seen  in  the  picture. 

The  harvesting  of  the  rice  is  a time  of  rejoicing. 
The  rice  has  grown  in  water  from  the  time  of  the  plant- 
ing until  about  three  weeks  before  the  ripening,  when 
it  is  drawn  off.  Though  growing  in  the  water,  the 
farmer  and  his  family  had  to  keep  the  ground  around 
the  roots  well  stirred,  and  the  fungus  green  that  formed 
around  the  stalk  carefully  cleared  away.  And  now  in 
August  the  rice  is  ripe  and  ready  for  the  sickle — for  the 
sickle  is  still  used  in  cutting  it.  When  cut  it  is  tied 
into  bundles  and  hung  upon  poles  on  the  spot.  After 
drying,  the  bundles  are  taken  and  with  an  iron  tooth 
hatchel  the  grains  are  separated  from  the  stalks.  The 
next  step  is  the  cleaning  of  the  grain — taking  off  the 
husks  so  as  to  get  clean,  white  rice.  This  is  done  either 
at  the  public  rice  mill  or  at  home.  One  often  sees  two- 
wlieeled  carts  loaded  with  uncleaned  rice,  drawn  by 
cows  or  by  the  farmer  and  his  boy,  going  to  town  to 
sell  his  rice,  or  to  the  mill  to  be  cleaned,  or  to  his  own 
cottage,  where  it  is  stored  until  cleaned.  The  rice 
mill  is  simply  a number  of  mortars  and  pestles  worked 
by  a water  wheel,  the  water  being  brought  down  from 
the  hills  above.  As  one  walks  the  narrow  roads  that 
meander  along  between  the  rice  fields,  and  skirting  the 
foothills,  he  frequently  comes  upon  these  rice  mills, 
where  he  sees  the  cow  and  the  cart,  or  perchance  a num- 
ber of  cows  quietly  standing  or  lying  around  near  the 
14 


210  JAPAN  : COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 

mill,  the  cows  that  have  brought  the  rice  bags  upon 
their  backs.  And  if  one  passes  a line  of  cows  thus  load- 
ed with  bags  of  rice,  he  knows  that  a rice  mill  is  near. 
Much  of  the  rice  is  cleaned,  however,  at  home  by  hand, 
or  rather  by  the  treading  of  feet.  Under  a little  shed  be- 
side the  house  one  often  sees  two  or  more  mortars  and 
pestles.  The  pestles  being  attached  to  the  end  of  hori- 
zontal beams,  and  the  beams  being  upon  a pivot,  a man 
stands  on  the  other  end,  and,  by  treading,  works  the  pes- 
tles up  and  down.  This  is  slow  work.  Or,  sometimes 
in  the  rice  dealer’s  store  one  sees  a half  dozen  men 
in  a row,  all  treading  those  pestle  beams.  This  is  their 
regular  work.  Large  quantities  of  rice  never  enter  into 
the  mouth  as  food,  but  as  sake,  rice-brewed  beer. 
Sake  is  their  national  drink,  and  immense  quantities 
are  consumed  yearly.  Less  intoxicating  than  whisky, 
it  has  more  alcohol  than  beer.  The  largest,  longest, 
and  highest  warehouses  the  writer  has  ever  seen  in  that 
land  are  the  warehouses  of  the  sake  breweries. 

The  Japanese  say  that  their  rice  is  better  than  the 
Chinese  product,  and  we  think  it  is  equal  to  our  Caro- 
lina rice.  A few  years  ago,  on  account  of  the  rice  fam- 
ine, immense  quantities  of  Chinese  rice  were  brought  to 
Japan  to  relieve  the  distress;  but  some  of  the  people,  al- 
though in  need  of  food,  refused  to  eat  the  bad-smelling 
Chinese  rice.  How  much  their  national  prejudice  had 
to  do  with  the  bad  smell  we  know  not.  Large  quanti- 
ties of  rice  are  shipped  yearly  to  foreign  countries,  in- 
cluding America. 

Tea  Raising. — Of  the  Ternstrcemia  family  of  ever- 
green bushes  and  trees,  the  tea  bush  and  the  camellia 
tree  have  become  famous  throughout  the  world,  though 
thev  are  by  no  means  grown  in  all  countries.  In  China 
and  Japan  they  have  for  centuries  been  cultivated  for 


TEA  11AISING. 


211 


their  leaves  and  flowers.  Tea  growing,  next  to  rice, 
furnishes  the  largest  article  of  commerce  in  Japan.  The 
name  for  tea  found  in  so  many  languages,  and  all  ety- 
mologically related,  points  back  to  China  as  the  origi- 
nal home  of  the  tea  plant.  In  Assam  it  is  a tree , known 
from  ancient  times.  In  China  it  is  a bush;  and  in  In- 
dia it  is  a hybrid  between  the  Assam  tree  and  the  China 
bush.  Tea-growing  districts  are  limited  on  the  north, 
say  in  India  and  China,  by  the  36th  degree  of  latitude, 
and  in  Japan  by  the  40th.  It  will  not  grow  in  cold 
countries,  though  it  is  a mistake  to  suppose  it  cannot 
grow  when  exposed  to  moderate  frost. 

For  Japan,  the  Uji  district  between  Osaka  and  Lake 
Biwa  is  the  celebrated  tea  district.  It  grows  best  on  a 
moist,  loose  sandy  loam  on  the  gentle  slopes  of  low  hills, 
especially  on  the  southward  slope;  if  on  the  level  plain, 
the  ground  is  well  drained.  Both  seeds  and  seedlings 
from  the  nursery  are  used  in  planting,  which  is  in 
autumn  or  spring.  The  distance  between  rows,  and  be- 
tween bushes  in  the  row,  is  about  four  and  three  feet 
respectively.  If  there  are  wider  intervals  between  rows, 
then  vegetables  and  roots  are  planted  between  them. 
For  vigorous  growth  of  leaves  the  ground  must  be  well 
manured  and  deeply  worked.  The  trimming  too  is  very 
important  in  order  to  get  the  greatest  amount  of  foliage 
surface  and  to  regulate  the  height  of  the  branches  from 
the  ground.  Trimming  is  done  when  the  sap  is  low. 
Being  an  evergreen,  the  bushes  set  out  in  regular  rows 
and  trimmed  to  uniform  height  and  size  naturally  at- 
tract the  eye  of  passers-by.  In  summer  the  contrast 
between  the  yellow  green  of  the  rice  fields,  often 
near  by,  and  the  dark  green  of  the  tea  fields  is 
very  pleasing.  In  winter  such  stretches  of  green  as  the 
tea  plantation  presents  are  not  the  least  attractive.  The 


212 


JAPAN : COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


bushes  are  usually  from  two  to  three  feet  across,  and 
from  three  to  four  feet  high,  the  limbs  branch  out  thick- 
ly, with  many  smaller  branches  making  a dense  mass  of 
leaves.  The  leaves  are  a dark  glossy  green,  ovate  in 
form,  slightly  notched  at  the  edges,  and  when  young 
are  very  tender,  but  as  they  grow  old  become  thick  and 
stiff. 

The  bushes  begin  to  yield  leaves  for  picking  the  third 
or  fourth  year,  and  flourish  until  the  tenth  or  twelfth 
year;  then  begin  to  decline  until  the  eighteenth  year, 
when  a new  setting  is  necessary.  In  the  tea  district  of 
TJji  there  are  some  trees  that  yield  leaves  for  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  years.  The  leaves  are  picked  twice  a year, 
as  a rule;  the  chief  crop  is  in  the  spring,  and  the  pick- 
ing begins  about  the  first  of  May.  The  second  picking 
is  about  six  weeks  later,  but  yields  inferior  leaves  not 
put  upon  the  market,  but  kept  for  home  use.  After  be- 
ing picked  the  leaf  is  carried  through  a long  process  of 
preparation. 

1.  Steaming  the  leaves.  Rows  of  kettles  or  pans 
are  set  in  a long  oven  half  filled  with  water  and  heated 
by  charcoal  from  beneath.  Upon  each  pan  is  placed  a 
covered  sieve  with  tea  leaves  spread  out  upon  the  bot- 
tom. For  a half  minute  the  tea  leaves  in  the  sieves  are 
steamed  to  produce  the  tea  odor.  The  sieve  is  now  re- 
moved, the  leaves  are  spread  out  upon  mats  or  tables, 
where  they  are  fanned  and  quickly  cooled. 

2.  The  firing  comes  next.  For  the  firing,  the  leaves 
are  placed  in  large  flat  wooden  or  bamboo  frames  or 
trays  coated  with  cement  underneath,  and  brought  to  a 
slow  heat  with  charcoal.  Meanwhile  a man  almost 
naked,  and  one  to  each  frame  or  tray,  is  working  the 
leaves  with  his  hands,  lifting  up  into  the  air,  stirring, 
rolling,  rubbing  between  his  palms  into  balls,  then 


PICKING  TEA. 


214 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


breaking  up  and  repeating  it.  He  continues  this  work 
for  several  hours,  until  the  mass  takes  on  a dark  olive 
color  and  the  separate  leaves  are  twisted  and  rolled. 
They  are  now  spread  out  upon  the  drying  frame,  still 
kept  a little  warm,  until  they  become  quite  brittle. 
The  tea  is  now  ready  to  be  sorted  and  packed. 

3.  The  sorting  of  the  tea.  In  the  picking,  stems, 
capsules,  unhealthy  or  unequal  leaves  have  gotten  in 
with  the  good  leaves.  With  a bamboo  sieve  all  these 
impurities  are  separated  as  far  as  possible.  Finally  the 
tea  designed  for  export  is  spread  out  upon  tables  or 
mattings,  and  girls  go  over  it  carefully,  picking  out  ev- 
ery impurity  or  thing  that  prevents  the  tea  from  having 
a uniform  appearance.  It  is  now  ready  to  be  sent  to  the 
treaty  ports  and  sold  to  foreign  exporters. 

4.  Second  firing.  Before  sending  it  on  its  long  sea 
voyage  to  New  York,  London,  or  Paris,  the  exporter 
subjects  the  tea  to  a second  firing.  For  this  purpose, 
in  the  treaty  ports  like  Kobe,  there  are  large  tea- 
firing establishments,  where  hundreds  of  women  and 
girls  work  at  the  unhealthy  business  of  standing  over 
tea  ovens  and  rolling  the  leaves  between  their  hands 
until  they  are  perfectly  dry.  If  the  tea  is  intended  for 
the  American  people,  it  is  colored  to  suit  their  fanciful 
taste,  but  the  Japanese  do  not  color  their  own.  For  the 
coloring,  a small  quantity  of  powdered  Prussian  blue 
and  gypsum  is  sprinkled  on  in  the  last  firing.  The 
powder  is  readily  absorbed  by  the  moist,  warm  leaves. 
Most  of  the  exported  tea  is  green,  being  colored  in  this 
way,  and  is  shipped  to  the  United  States.  The  black 
tea  of  China  is  prepared  by  some  kind  of  fermentation. 
As  for  the  powdered  tea,  the  Japanese  consider  it  the 
best,  and  it  is  the  costliest.  It  is  prepared  from  the 
most  delicate  leaves  and  best  bushes,  put  away  with 


TINY  TOBACCO  PIPES. 


215 


care,  and  ground  just  before  using.  This  tea  is  served 
only  on  occasions  of  great  ceremony,  for  instance,  at  high 
tea  parties,  and  is  not  exported.  The  scenting  of  the 
tea  by  using  odorous  blossoms  such  as  jasmine,  daphne, 
and  orange,  like  the  coloring  custom,  is  slowly  declin- 
ing. It  is  still  practiced  in  China.  The  Japanese  do 
not  drink  cold  water  nor  milk,  hence  tea  is  the  con- 
stant drink  at  meals  and  between  meals.  Although 
tea  was  known  from  about  805  A.D.,  it  did  not  become 
the  national  drink  till  about  1400  A.D. ; and  it  is  a fact 
that  the  Portuguese  did  not  export  tea  from  Japan  to 
Europe,  nor  did  the  Dutch.  Only  since  the  recent 
opening  of  the  country  by  Commodore  Perry,  in  1854, 
has  tea  been  an  article  of  export.  Now  immense  quan- 
tities are  shipped  yearly. 

Tobacco  and  the  Japanese  Pipe. — In  1607  a Japanese 
physician  at  Nagasaki  wrote  in  a family  chronicle  the 
following:  “Of  late  a thing  has  come  into  fashion 
called  tabako.  It  is  said  to  have  originated  in  Namban 
(Portugal),  and  consists  of  large  leaves  which  are  cut  up 
and  of  which  one  drinks  the  smoke.”  The  smoking 
habit  spread  rapidly  among  all  classes,  men  and  women 
alike.  As  James  I.  of  England  issued  a decree  against 
its  use  all  in  vain,  so  the  rulers  of  China  and  Japan  at- 
tempted to  forbid  their  people  the  use  of  the  noxious 
weed.  As  for  the  Japanese  pipe,  it  is  a small  affair,  be- 
ing about  half  the  size  of  a lady’s  thimble.  The  Japan- 
ese smoke  fine-cut  only,  never  chew,  and  only  take  a few 
whiffs  at  a time;  and  as  they  draw  the  smoke  into  the 
throat  and  puff  out  through  the  nostrils  they  properly 
say  ‘ £ drink  tobacco  ” — that  is,  the  smoke. 

Passing  by  other  agricultural  industries  such  as 
wheat  and  millet  raised  in  small  quantities,  ginseng 
and  various  oil-producing  plants,  as  well  as  dyestuffs, 


216 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 

cotton  growing  calls  for  a few  words.  The  writer, 
brought  uj)  in  a cotton-growing  State,  was  interested  at 
first  in  the  cotton  growing  in  Japan,  but  he  saw  noth- 
ing worthy  of  comparison  with  our  Southern  cotton. 
The  plant  is  small,  nor  do  the  people  seem  to  know  how 
to  cultivate  it,  for  everywhere  the  stalks  are  left  too 
thick  in  the  row,  and  the  yield  is  very  small.  But 
now,  when  many  and  large  cotton  mills  are  being  set 
up  in  J apan,  one  would  think  that  the  authorities  should 
promote  better  methods  of  tillage  and  the  planting  of 
better  kinds  of  cotton  seed. 

Silk  Culture. — If  we  speak  of  silk  raising  in  Asia, 
India  has  from  ancient  times  produced  it,  but  of  late 
has  not  increased;  Turkey  and  Persia  have  declined  in 
its  production;  so  that  China  and  Japan  are  the  foremost 
countries  for  silk  culture.  In  Europe  the  Greeks  had 
the  first  knowledge  of  the  silkworm  through  Alexander 
the  Great’s  expedition  to  India.  lie  sent  silkworms  to 
his  famous  teacher,  Aristotle,  who  was  the  first  to  de- 
scribe them.  In  modern  times  Italy,  Spain,  France, 
Germany,  and  other  countries  attempted  silk  culture; 
but  Italy,  with  France  next,  is  the  silk-producing  coun- 
try in  Europe.  In  America  efforts  have  been  made  to 
raise  silkworms,  but  with  little  success.  When  a child, 
the  writer  used  to  hear  his  mother  tell  about  the  mul- 
berry and  silkworm  growing  of  his  grandmother  in 
South  Carolina.  It  must  have  been  on  a small  scale. 
Japan,  China,  and  Italy  remain  to-day  the  three  chief 
silk-growing  countries  in  the  world.  It  was  not  until 
the  fifth  century  of  the  Christian  era  that  the  silkworm 
was  brought  over  by  immigrants  from  China  or  Korea. 
The  then  reigning  Emperor  and  Empress  sought  by 
personal  example  to  encourage  the  growing  of  mulberry 
trees  and  silkworms,  but  it  did  not  become  an  impor- 


SILK  CULTURE. 


217 


taut  national  industry  before  the  middle  of  the  sixth 
century.  During  the  Tokugawa  rule  silk  weaving 
made  great  progress,  owing  to  the  use  of  line  costumes 
by  the  noble  and  middle  classes.  It  has  been  said  that 
when  our  early  English  forefathers  were  living  by  fish- 
ing and  hunting  and  dressed  chiefly  in  skins  the  Chi- 
nese were  wearing  silk;  but  this  cannot  be  said  of  the 
Japanese.  Their  rulers  and  nobles  at  court  may  have 
worn  silk  from  earlier  times;  but  the  weaving  of  white, 
lustrous,  figured  silk  damasks,  and  fine  silk  crape  was 
not  known  until  very  much  later. 

The  three  kinds  of  mulberry  plantations  are,  first,  the 
low  stump,  so  named  because  the  stump  is  cut  off  near 
the  ground.  Shoots  put  out  all  around  the  stump, 
bearing  large,  strong  leaves  that  are  stripped  off  and 
carried  to  the  feeding  silkworms;  and  this  is  the  meth- 
od in  the  level  districts  where  the  soil  is  loamy  and  deep- 
ly worked.  Secondly,  high-stump  plantation,  where  the 
trunks  are  cut  off  six  feet  above  the  ground,  as  seen 
in  the  hilly  regions.  Thirdly,  the  high  trees,  upon  the 
steeper  slopes  or  narrow  gorges  where  the  mulberry  is 
allowed  to  grow  wild,  as  it  were.  Trees  properly  cared 
for  live  fifty  or  sixty  years,  but  not  more  than  forty  if 
neglected.  The  plantation  is  set  with  seedlings  of  a 
year  old  and  in  rows  at  regular  spaces.  The  mulberry 
chiefly  planted  is  the  white-fruit  kind.  The  black-fruit 
variety  that  grows  in  America  is  not  found  in  Japan. 
Cultivated  for  centuries,  there  have  been  developed  sev- 
eral species  of  trees  as  well  as  silkworms.  The  people 
who  engage  in  silk  raising  keep  the  worms  when  feed- 
ing and  spinning  in  rooms  in  their  dwellings,  frequent- 
ly in  rooms  built  for  the  purpose.  In  order  to  do  well 
the  rooms  must  be  airy,  dry,  and  perfectly  clean. 
This  habit  of  cleanliness  has  improved  the  condition  of 


218 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


the  silk  growers  to  a marked  degree,  as  seen  in  tlieir 
clean  houses  and  mats.  No  other  branch  of  agriculture 
has  so  beneficial  an  effect  on  the  people. 

As  was  stated  on  page  31,  the  butterfly,  or  moth,  that 
comes  from  the  cocoon  lays  its  eggs;  and  they  are  made 
to  lay  upon  paper  boards  and  stick  fast  to  the  boards — 
say  forty  thousand  eggs  to  a board  three  feet  by  two. 
During  the  winter  these  boards  with  the  eggs  are  stored 
away  in  a dry  room,  and  carefully  covered  and  wrapped 
in  paper  to  keep  out  the  mice  and  the  dampness.  When 
the  hatching  time  draws  nigh,  the  boards  are  brought 
out  into  the  hatching  rooms  and  placed  in  a shady  place 
in  the  open  air.  The  grubs  are  hatched  in  from  twen- 
ty-five to  thirty  days,  usually  in  April  and  May.  Arti- 
ficial heat  shortens  the  time.  When  the  young  worms 
appear,  they  are  transferred  to  hurdle  beds  of  bamboo 
splits,  or  matting,  sprinkled  with  tender  chopped  leaves. 
During  the  feeding  period  these  beds  must  be  cleansed 
daily.  A net  made  of  hemp  yarn  is  stretched  just  above 
the  beds,  and  when  the  worms  have  crawled  up  on 
this  netting,  the  bed  beneath,  with  its  droppings,  dead 
worms,  and  remnants  of  dead  leaves,  is  taken*  away 
and  cleansed.  Worms  of  the  same  age  and  size  are  kept 
together  on  the  same  hurdle  beds,  the  sluggish,  sickly 
ones  being  placed  upon  separate  beds.  After  feeding 
for  about  thirty-five  days,  and  casting  their  skin  four 
times,  the  worms  are  ready  to  spin  their  cocoons.  For 
this  purpose  layers  of  stalks  of  some  kind,  or  twigs  of  a 
bush  are  laid  in  order  over  the  hurdle  beds.  When  the 
worms  begin  they  must  have  something  of  the  kind  to 
which  to  fasten  the  first  thread  in  spinning  their  co- 
coons. The  cocoons  are  about  an  inch  long  and  half 
as  thick.  The  outside  thread  is  thin,  less  valuable,  and 
is  called  floss  silk.  After  separating  this  loose  floss  silk 


PAPER  MAKING. 


219 


from  the  outside  of  the  cocoon,  the  best  ones  are  chosen 
for  breeding  the  next  season,  and  the  rest  are  exposed  to 
the  hot  sun  or  put  in  boiling  water  to  kill  the  worm  in- 
side, now  changed  to  a chrysalis.  The  next  step  is  the 
reeling  of  the  silk  from  the  cocoons  or  balls.  In  olden 
times  this  was  done  by  the  silk  grower,  but  now  reeling 
establishments  are  in  operation  that  buy  the  cocoons 
from  the  growers  and  reel  off  the  silk  by  machinery.  It 
may  be  stated  that  since  the  country  was  opened,  thirty 
years  ago,  Japan  has  been  exporting  to  foreign  coun- 
tries immense  quantities  of  the  various  products  of  the 
silkworm,  from  the  egg  up  to  the  most  costly  damasks 
and  brocades,  making  a total  annual  export  worth  more 
than  thirty  million  dollars. 

Paper  making  in  Japan  deserves  brief  mention.  In- 
deed, Rein  devotes  twenty-six  royal  octavo  pages  to  this 
subject.  In  the  oldest  accounts  of  the  country  the  many 
uses  of  paper  are  mentioned.  Two  hundred  and  fifty 
years  ago  the  Dutch  traders  observed  it,  and  Kampfer 
especially.  It  was  used  for  many  purposes  other  than 
those  known  to  us;  not  only  for  writing,  book  printing, 
painting,  wrapping,  packing,  etc.,  but  also  for  fans, 
screens,  umbrellas,  lanterns,  dolls’  clothes,  waterproof 
cloaks  and  tarpaulins,  large  rain  hats,  tobacco  pouches, 
pipe  cases,  boxes,  windowpanes,  leather,  wood,  and 
even  for  iron.  These  numerous  uses  were  due  to  the 
lack  of  other  suitable  material — for  example,  lack  of 
glass — and  also  to  the  lightness,  cheapness,  and  tough- 
ness of  their  paper. 

Our  machine-made  paper  is  smooth  and  pretty,  but 
very  brittle.  The  Japanese  hand-made  paper  is  the 
better  for  lightness,  pliableness,  and  toughness.  This 
is  because  it  was  made  of  the  inner  bark  of  trees  and 
shrubs,  chiefly  the  paper  mulberry,  and  because  the  fiber 


UMBRELLA  MAKING 


PAPER  MAKING. 


221 


cells  of  the  bark  are  not  cut  to  pieces  by  machinery,  but 
are  pounded  and  beaten.  This  softens  while  it  leaves 
the  libers  long  and  tough,  and  when  made  into  paper 
sheets  they  are  surprisingly  tough,  flexible,  and  as  soft 
as  silk  paper.  On  the  other  hand,  their  bark-made  pa- 
per is  porous  and  thin,  and  not  suitable  for  pen  and  ink, 
but  well  suited  to  the  little  brush  and  thick  India  ink 
which  the  Japanese  and  Chinese  use  in  writing.  After 
the  fashion  of  the  Chinese,  only  one  side  of  the  leaves 
of  a book  is  printed.  Every  couple  of  leaves  is  left 
uncut,  so  that  the  unprinted  pages  of  each  couple  are 
inside  and  unseen.  It  is  said  that  the  making  of  paper 
was  invented  in  China  about  105  A.D.  The  art  of 
making  paper  from  the  bark  of  the  mulberry  was 
brought  from  Korea  to  Japan  about  the  beginning  of 
the  seventh  century,  which  was  several  centuries  before 
paper  making  was  known  in  Europe.*  It  became  one 
of  the  most  important  branches  of  industry  and  trade  in 
Japan,  and  is  so  to-day,  and  this  has  led  to  the  growing 
of  mulberry  and  other  paper-yielding  trees  and  shrubs 
in  many  parts  of  the  country. 

Until  recently  paper  making  was  carried  on  in  many 
dwellings,  on  a small  scale,  there  being  one  or  two  vats 
in  a house.  In  the  summer,  when  the  family  was  busy 
with  the  crops,  paper  making  was  suspended.  The 
commonest  paper  for  writing,  printing,  and  for  hand- 
kerchiefs, was  named  “hanshi.”  Recently  machine- 
made  paper  has  come  into  use.  These  mills,  and  the 
frien  to  operate  them  or  teach  the  Japanese,  were  intro- 
duced from  Europe.  Besides  the  ordinary  hanshi,  a 
kind  of  papier-mache,  crape  paper,  leather  paper,  oil 

* Hildreth  supposes  that  Europe  derived  the  idea  of  paper 
hanging  (wall  papering),  as  a substitute  for  tapestry,  from 
Japan. 


222 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


paper,  a soft,  lustrous  silk  paper  unsurpassed  by  any 
country,  and  a paper  resembling  parchment  almost  as 
tough  as  leather  itself,  were  all  manufactured  by  the 
Japanese  before  the  advent  of  the  modern  foreigner  into 
the  country.  We  doubt  if  anywhere  else  in  the  world 
as  good  a quality  of  parchment  paper  is  made.  Two  or 
three  other  uses  are  unknown  to  us — such  as  window 
panes,  shoji  papering,  and  lanterns. 

Other  industries,  either  peculiar  to  the  country  or 
carried  on  in  a peculiar  way — such  as  bamboo  and 
wicker  work,  matting  and  rugs,  umbrella  making,  fans, 
lanterns,  sake  brewing,  and  camphor  distilling  and  re- 
fining— might  be  interesting  topics,  but  space  is  lacking. 

VI.  At  a Japanese  Inn  in  the  Olden  Time. 

Of  the  seven  great  government  roads  built  centuries 
ago,  the  Tokaido  (East  Sea  Road),  from  Kioto  to  Yedo, 
was  the  most  traveled.  More  than  two  hundred  years 
ago,  when  the  Dutch  trader,  Kampfer,  had  to  make  the 
annual  visit  to  the  Shogun  and  carry  presents,  he  was 
surprised  at  the  number  of  people  whom  he  met  along 
that  great  highway  on  his  way  to  Yedo.  Posthouses 
were  built  at  intervals  of  from  six  to  fifteen  miles  to  ac- 
commodate travelers  wishing  to  hire  horses,  porters,  se- 
dan chairs,  and  footmen.  These  were  not  inns  or  hotels, 
but  were  kept  for  stabling  and  hiring  horses  and  bag- 
gage carriers,  which  were  let  at  fixed  prices  by  the  clerk. 
Messengers  were  also  kept  day  and  night  in  waiting, 
who  carried  from  one  posthouse  to  the  next  the  letters, 
edicts,  and  proclamations  from  the  Shogun  or  great 
Daimyos;  swift- footed  mail  carriers  they  were.  Put  in 
a black  varnished  box  bearing  the  coat  of  arms  of  the 
Shogun  or  prince  sending  them,  and  tied  to  a staff  borne 
on  the  shoulder,  these  communications  were  carried  by 


AT  AN  INN  IN  THE  OLDEN  TIME. 


223 


fleet  messengers  to  the  next  posthouse.  The  messen- 
gers ran  two  together,  so  that  if  one  fell  ill  or  became 
disabled  the  other  could  run  on.  All  travelers,  even 
Daimyos,  had  to  give  the  way  when  these  messengers 
bearing  edicts  from  the  Shogun  came  running  and  ring- 
ing a small  bell.  Just  as  he  reached  the  posthouse,  and 
even  before  stopping,  the  box  was  thrown  to  the  mes- 
senger there  waiting  for  it,  who  instantly  started  in  a 
run  to  the  next  posthouse.  In  this  way  communications 
were  sent  out  from  the  Shogun’s  capital  with  considera- 
ble haste. 

Kampfer  tells  us  that  the  best  inns  were  in  those  vil- 
lages where  the  posthouses  were.  But  even  the  well- 
built  ones  were  only  one  story,  or,  if  two,  the  second  was 
low  and  good  for  storage  only.  Those  inns,  though 
narrow  in  front  as  other  houses,  were  deeper,  running 
back  sometimes  two  hundred  and  forty  feet,  with  a 
pleasure  garden  in  the  rear  inclosed  within  a neat  white 
plastered  wall.  The  front  side  of  the  inn  had  small 
lattice  windows  and  a narrow  veranda  jutting  right 
on  the  street,  which  was  without  pavements,  being  con- 
venient for  mounting  a horse  without  soiling  the  feet. 
In  the  rear  too  was  a similar  veranda,  where  sat  the 
guests  in  the  cool  of  the  evening  looking  into  the  gar- 
den with  its  pool,  artificial  mountain,  and  well-kept 
trees  and  shrubs.  The  movable  partitions  and  screens 
between  rooms  were  removed  except  when  a person  of 
quality  is  a guest,  so  as  to  enable  travelers  passing  along 
the  street  to  see  clean  through  the  house  and  back  into 
the  little  park  or  garden.  The  kitchen  was  in  the  fore 
part,  and  was  often  filled  with  smoke,  there  being  only  a 
hole  in  the  roof  for  smoke  to  escape.  Here  the  foot 
travelers  and  the  meaner  sort  of  people  lodged  with  the 
servants.  Rooms  in  the  front  were  generally  sorry 


224 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


and  poor  in  comparison  with  those  in  the  rear,  which 
were  always  reserved  for  officials  and  persons  of  qual- 
ity, and  were  neat/  and  clean  to  admiration. 

He  speaks  of  the  recessed  wall  on  one  side  of  the 
room,  and  of  the  dais  where  rest  the  vases  filled  Avith 
flowers  and  green  branches;  and  of  the  kakemono , or 
hanging  scroll,  embroidered  and  hanging  upon  the  wall 
behind  the  flowers,  with  the  drawing  of  some  saint, 
maxim,  or  bit  of  poetry  by  some  celebrated  scholar, 
written  in  large  characters,  or  some  scene  of  mountain 
and  sea,  bird,  bamboo,  or  plum  blossoms;  of  the  in- 
cense brasier  or  vase,  from  which  pleasant  odors  are  ex- 
haled into  the  room,  in  honor  of  a distinguished  guest; 
of  some  strange  piece  of  wood  wherein  colors  and 
grains  run  in  an  unnatural  way.  He  likewise  men- 
tions the  scroll  work  in  wood  adorning  the  veranda  and 
the  space  just  above  the  shojis;  of  the  branch  of  a tree 
or  piece  of  rotten  wood,  or  some  stone  remarkable  for 
its  deformed  or  curious  shape.  All  these  the  traveler 
sees  to-day.  All  along  the  road  in  those  days,  as  it  is 
to-day,  there  were  smaller  inns,  cook  shops,  tea  houses, 
sake  and  confection  shops  where  the  meaner  sort  might 
for  a few  sen  get  refreshment.  Even  though  sorry  and 
poor,  there  was  always  something  to  amuse  travelers 
and  draw  them  in.  In  summer  a pleasant  arbor  in  front, 
or  a little  garden  or  orchard  seen  through  a passage  in 
the  rear,  with  a pool  or  brook  flowing  down  from  the 
hill  close  by,  a rockery  or  grotto — all  invite  the  weary 
tra\Teler  to  stop.  Sometimes  a couple  of  young  girls, 
well  dressed,  stand  at  the  door  and  civilly  invite  tra\Tel- 
ers.  Here  various  eatables,  besides  tea  and  sake,  were 
sold:  round  cakes  big  as  hen’s  eggs,  filled  inside  with 
black  bean  curd  and  sugar;  root  jelly  cake  cut  into 
slices  and  roasted;  boiled  or  pickled  snails,  small  fish 


DAIMYO’s  HETINUE  IN  THE  OLDEN  TIME.  225 

and  shellfish;  all  sorts  of  plants,  roots,  sprigs,  washed 
and  boiled,  and  innumerable  dishes  of  seeds,  powdered 
roots,  and  vegetables  dressed  in  different  ways.  The 
common  sauce  for  these  dishes  was  soy.  Then  there 
were  sweetmeats  of  every  color,  more  agreeable  to  the 
eye  than  to  the  taste.  Into  the  soup,  ginger,  or  other 
powdered  root  was  sprinkled.  The  dishes  were  gar- 
nished with  leaves  or  slices  of  orange  peel. 

VII.  A Great  Daimyo’s  Retinue  in  the  Olden 
Time. 

A scene  in  feudal  times,  now  vanished  forever,  is  de- 
scribed by  Ivampfer  at  length,  but  is  here  condensed. 
In  making  their  annual  visit  to  Yedo  the  more  powerful 
Daimyos  traveled  with  great  pomp  becoming  as  well  their 
own  quality  and  wealth  as  the  majesty  of  the  great 
Shogun  to  whom  they  were  going  to  pay  their  homage. 
He  says  that  once  he  met  the  retinue  of  a powerful 
Daimyo  mustering  about  twenty  thousand  men;  that 
they  marched  in  bands  at  intervals,  and  required  two 
days  to  pass  them  all;  and  on  the  third  day  he  passed  the 
Daimyo  himself,  attended  by  his  numerous  court.  To 
avoid  confusion  of  two  great  lords  traveling  the  same 
road  at  the  same  time,  the  posthouses  and  inns  are  be- 
spoken beforehand.  Notice  boards  fastened  to  high 
bamboo  poles  inform  the  people  along  the  way  of  the 
expected  arrival  of  such  and  such  a Daimyo  or  imperial 
governor.  The  roads  are  repaired,  and  everything  along 
the  way  put  in  neat  and  clean  order;  clerks  and  cooks 
go  before  to  secure  lodgings,  victuals,  and  provender. 
After  the  clerks  and  cooks  comes  the  heavy  baggage  in 
small  willow  Icoris  lashed  to  horses’  backs,  with  the 
coat  of  arms  of  the  Daimyo  in  large  characters,  or 
chests  covered  with  red  lacquered  leather  borne  upon 
15 


226 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


men’s  shoulders.  Next  came  smaller  retinues,  not  of 
the  Daimyo,  hut  of  liis  chief  officers  and  noblemen, 
with  pikes,  bows,  and  arrows,  umbrellas,  sedan  chairs, 
and  horses.  Some  of  these  officials  are  in  sedan  chairs; 
others  ride  on  horses.  Then  comes  the  Daimyo’s  own 
train,  marching  in  admirable  order,  divided  into  ten 
or  twelve  companies,  headed  each  by  an  officer.  1. 
Five  fine  horses,  each  led  by  two  grooms,  one  on  each 
side,  and  followed  by  two  footmen.  2.  Five  or  six 
richly  clad  porters  bearing  upon  their  shoulders  lac- 
quered chests,  Japanned  trunks,  and  baskets  containing 
the  Daimyo’s  wearing  apparel,  each  porter  being  attend- 
ed by  two  footmen.  3.  Five  or  more  fellows  carrying 
in  wooden  cases  pikes,  short  swords,  and  firearms.  4. 
Two  or  more  men  bearing  the  pike  of  state,  or  other  badge 
of  authority,  adorned  with  a bunch  of  cock’s  feathers  to 
distinguish  from  other  daimyos  and  lords.  5.  A gen- 
tleman bearing  the  Daimyo’s  hat  under  a velvet  cover, 
and  attended  by  two  footmen.  6.  A gentleman  attend- 
ed by  two  footmen  bearing  the  Daimyo’s  umbrella.  7. 
More  trunk  bearers,  etc.  8.  Sixteen  of  the  Daimyo’s 
pages  and  gentlemen  of  the  bedchamber  walking  in  front 
of  his  sedan  chair.  9.  The  Daimyo  or  prince  ‘himself 
seated  in  a stately  sedan  chair.  If  dusty,  the  streets  in 
towns  through  which  he  has  to  pass  are  sprinkled.  The 
people  retired  within  their  houses,  tightly  closed,  or 
knelt  behind  screens  in  the  front  of  the  house,  or  else 
retired  to' the  field  at  a respectful  distance  from  the  road. 
The  Daimyo’s  chair  was  borne  on  the  shoulders  of 
six  men  richly  clad,  others  walking  at  the  side  to  take 
their  turn;  also  two  or  three  gentlemen  of  his  bed- 
chamber to  wait  on  him  and  assist  him  in  getting  in  and 
out.  10.  Two  or  three  horses  of  state  with  saddles 
covered  with  black  velvet,  each  horse  attended  by  two 


PROCESSION  OF  FEUDAL  LORDS. 


(227) 


228 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


grooms  and  several  footmen.  11.  Two  pike  bearers. 
12.  Two  persons  carrying  two  baskets  each  of  great 
size.  This  great  procession  is  closed  up  in  the  rear  by 
a multitude  of  domestics  and  subordinate  officers  of  the 
Daimyo,  with  their  own  servants,  baggage,  and  other 
utensils.  The  whole  train  is  headed  by  the  prince’s 
high  steward  seated  in  his  sedan  chair  borne  upon  the 
shoulders  of  men.  If  a son  of  a Daimyo  or  lord  accom- 
panies, he  follows  immediately  behind  his  father’s  reti- 
nue, with  his  own  train  of  attendants.  All  except  the 
pike  bearers,  those  who  bear  the  sedan  chair  and  the 
livery  men  are  clad  in  blue  silk  and  march  in  elegant 
order,  with  becoming  gravity,  and  in  so  profound  a 
silence  that  not  the  least  noise  is  made  save  what 
arises  from  the  motion  and  rustling  of  dresses  and  bag- 
gage and  the  tramping  of  horses’  feet. 

Of  course,  when  the  great  Shogun  traveled,  there 
was  a still  greater  retinue  of  troops,  servants,  horses, 
and  baggage.  As  he  proceeded,  a runner  going  ahead 
cried  out  to  the  jjeople  to  clear  the  road  and  to  go  down 
upon  the  ground.  “Shitaye!  shitaye!”  he  cried — 
“down!  down!”  and  all  in  profoundest  humility  went 
down  upon  the  ground.  Any  person  who  did  not  go 
down  might  lose  his  head  instantly.  Only  a stroke  or 
two  of  a Samurai’s  sword  would  take  his  head  off.  All 
of  this  display  and  parade  was  a part  of  the  feudal  sys- 
tem. Officialdom,  ceremony,  and  red  tape  played  a 
great  part  in  those  times. 


CHAPTER  VIL 


RELIGIONS  OF  JAPAN’ IN  THE  NINETEENTH 
CENTURY. 

I.  The  Shinto  Religion. 

At  the  time  the  country  was  opened,  thirty  years  ago, 
Buddhism  was  the  principal  religion  among  all  classes; 
howbeit,  owing  to  the  compromising  policy  of  the  Bud- 
dhist priests  centuries  before,  there  had  come  to  be  a 
mixing  of  Buddhism  and  Shintoism.  The  old  national 
Shinto  gods  were  recognized  and  worshiped,  even  by  Bud- 
dhist believers  (see  p.  67),  especially  the  sun  goddess,  the 
imperial  ancestors,  and  certain  national  heroes  of  legen- 
dary fame.  In  some  Shinto  temples  Buddhists  had  charge, 
so  that  they  were  more  Buddhist  than  Shinto.  In  every 
important  town  a temple  had  been  built  to  the  sun  god- 
dess, the  mother  of  the  race,  modeled  after  the  first  na- 
tional shrine  erected  to  her  in  Ise.  Once  a year,  or  at 
least  once  in  a lifetime,  every  Japanese  must  make  a visit 
to  that  shrine  in  Ise.  Shinto  temples  are  usually  built 
upon  an  eminence,  in  a retired  spot,  surrounded  by  a 
grove  of  pine  or  cryptomerias.  They  are  approached  by 
a grand  avenue,  at  the  entrance  to  which  stands  a torn , 
or  gateway,  of  wood  or  stone.  Such  surroundings  would 
indicate  an  imposing  structure;  but,  passing  through 
the  avenue  or  grove  and  drawing  nigh,  one  finds  a sorry 
small  building,  usually  about  eighteen  feet  in  length 
and  breadth.  This  plain  structure  is  made  of  white, 
unpainted,  planed  wood,  the  pine  or  hinoki.  Being,  as 
is  claimed,  a development  of  the  primitive  hut  of  their 


230 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


ancestors  in  Asia,  the  roof  of  those  in  purest  style  is 
still  of  thatch,  but  many  have  roofs  of  shingle,  some  of 
copper  sheeting.  The  rafters  extend  upward,  crossing 
the  ridge  pole  in  the  form  of  an  X,  as  seen  in  the  picture. 
The  primitive  hut  had  probably  no  floor,  but  Shinto 
temples  have  floors  raised  some  feet  above  the  ground, 
and  a sort  of  balcony  running  around,  with  a flight  of 
stairs  up  to  the  entrance. 


ENTRANCE  TO  SHINTO  TEMPLE. 

The  temple  proper  consists  of  two  rooms,  front  and 
rear.  In  the  front  is  a wand,  from  which  hangs  white 
paper  notched  in  a particular  way,  which  represents  the 
white  cloth  made  in  ancient  times  from  the  paper  mul- 
berry and  offered  to  the  gods.  Separated  from  the  front 
room  by  a latticed  partition  is  the  second  sanctum,  into 
which  even  the  high  priest  enters  not  except  on  rare  oc- 
casions. (Cf.  Heb.  ix.  7.)  Back  there  the  emblem  of 
the  god  is  kept  within  a box.  This  emblem  is  the  sym- 


SHINTO  TEMPLE. 


231 


bol  of  the  august  spirit  of  the  god,  and  is  usually  a 
mirror,  sometimes  a sword  or  a curious  stone.  The 
mirror  symbolizes  a female  god,  and  the  sword  a male 
god.  The  absence  of  images  in  Shinto  temples  has 
been  variously  and  unsatisfactorily  explained.  Some  say 
it  is  because  the  ancient  Japanese  had  no  knowledge  of 
painting  or  sculpture,  but  many  low  and  rude  peoples 
have  had  some  kind  of  idols  to  represent  their  gods; 
others  have  explained  it  by  saying  that  originally  the 
Japanese  were  worshipers  of  one  god  only. 

In  front  of  the  temple  proper  there  is  frequently  a 
kind  of  antechamber,  or  porch.  Above  this  entrance  is 
a gong  and  a large  rope  hanging,  which  the  worshiper 
shakes  to  sound  the  gong  in  order  to  call  the  attention 
of  the  god  to  his  prayers.  N ever  entering  into  the  build- 
ing, as  we  do  in  our  churches,  the  worshiper  stops  here, 
bows  low  the  head,  claps  the  hands,  and  offers  worship. 
In  the  temple  yard  in  the  front  is  a stone  tank,  where  the 
hands  are  washed  preparatory  to  worship.  After  a very 
brief  worship,  or  generally  beforehand,  a few  copper 
coins  are  cast  upon  the  floor  or  into  the  alms  chest.  In 
the  courts  of  these  temples  may  frequently  be  seen  little 
shrines  dedicated  to  other  Shinto  gods,  local  deities,  and 
demigods.  The  fox  shrine,  with  little  white  images  of 
the  fox  god,  is  a common  sight  here;  and  not  unfre- 
quently  a sacred  white  horse  is  kept  in  a stall  in  the 
temple  precincts.  At  all  these  temples  the  priests  sell 
little  white  slips  of  paper  inscribed  with  the  title  of  the 
god,  which  is  esteemed  a charm  for  the  protection  of  the 
family.  This,  or  a wooden  tablet  of  the  same  meaning 
and  j3urpose,  may  be  seen  pasted  above  the  door  to  their 
dwellings,  or  else  kept  near  the  god- shelf  or  altar  inside 
the  house.  The  sale  of  these  sacred  charms  brings 
something  to  the  living  of  the  priests.  Even  to  the  old 


232 


JAPAN : COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


trees  in  the  grove  surrounding  the  temple  a sacred  char- 
acter is  ascribed,  and  a fillet  of  straw  rope  used  to  be 
placed  around  them,  as  if  they  were  tenanted  by  some 
divine  spirit. 

Our  own  observation  agrees  with  Mr.  Satow’s  state- 
ment that  in  the  Shinto  religion  ^hcre  are  scarcely  any 
regular  services  in  which  the  people  take  part,  no  assem- 
blies like  the  Christian  congregation,  no  songs,  no  preach- 
ing. Only  at  the  festival  time  is  there  an  assembly,  and 
then  they  never  enter  into  the  temple.  The  worshipers 
repair  to  the  temple  one  by  one,  and  return  quickly.  Nor 
are  the  priests  distinguished  by  their  dress  from  ordinary 
people;  only  when  engaged  in  the  morning  and  evening 
offering  is  a peculiar  dress  worn.  This  consists  of  a 
long,  loose  gown  with  wide  sleeves,  fastened  at  the 
waist  with  a girdle,  and  a tall  black  cap,  fastened  upon 
the  head  with  a white  fillet.  Nor  are  the  Shinto  priests 
bound  by  any  vows  of  celibacy,  as  are  the  Buddhist 
priests,  but  are  free  to  marry  and  adopt  any  career  they 
like.  Young  women  are  sometimes  seen  at  temples, 
acting  as  priestesses,  but  their  chief  duty  is  to  perform 
the  sacred  pantomime  or  danc  e in  time  of  the  festivals. 
They  are  under  no  vows  of  celibacy. 

Shinto  services  consist  of  certain  formulae  recited  by 
the  priests,  partly  in  praise,  partly  in  petition,  and  of- 
ferings of  rice,  fish,  sake,  vegetables.  The  Shinto  sys- 
tem was  less  severe  than  the  Buddhist  touching  the 
view  of  human  existence  and  enjoyment.  The  devotees 
of  Shinto  were  more  disposed  to  look  on  the  bright  side 
of  things,  making  holidays  of  their  religious  festivals, 
and  regarding  people  in  sorrow  and  distress  as  unfit  for 
the  worship  of  the  gods,  whose  felicity  ought  not  to  be 
disturbed  by  our  pain  and  misery.  Shinto  festivals  and 
ceremonies  are  much  simpler  than  those  of  the  Bud- 


SHINTO  PRIESTS  AND  RITUAL. 


233 


dhist.  On  the  1st  and  3d  of  January,  at  the  vernal 
equinox  in  March,  and  on  the  21st  of  November,  the 
Emperor  proceeds  to  the  imperial  chapel  at  his  palace, 
or  sends  a representative  to  Ise  to  worship  the  god  of 
heaven  and  to  offer  dutiful  and  reverent  salutations  to 
the  imperial  ancestors.  In  November  he  makes  thank 
offerings  of  the  new  rice  also.  On  the  Jlth  of  Novem- 
ber there  is  a Shinto  festival  to  commemorate  Jimnm 
Tenno’s  accession  to  the  throne.  On  that  day  the 
priests  make  special  offerings  to  the  gods  and  invoke 
blessings  upon  the  reigning  Emperor. 

Of  the  local  festivals,  the  Gion  Matsuri  is  the  princi- 
pal one,  celebrated  from  the  17th  to  the  24th  of  July,  to 
the  god  Susanoo,  at  the  Gion  temple  in  Kioto.  The 
reader  will  remember  that  this  god  was  the  unruly 
brother  of  the  sun  goddess  (Amaterasu),  who  caused  her 
so  much  trouble  both  on  the  heavenly  plain  and  upon 
earth.  Why  they  should  worship  such  a wicked  and 
lawless  creature  is  strange.  Preparatory  to  this  festi- 
val the  boys  of  the  neighborhood  are  trained  for  several 
days  at  beating  drums,  gongs,  and  in  other  musical  per- 
formances. The  handsomest  youth  of  all  is  chosen 
for  the  “ chigo  — that  is,  the  victim  to  be  offered  up  to 
the  god  of  the  temple.  In  olden  times  he  was  no  doubt 
slain  and  offered,  but  now  it  is  a symbolic  ceremony. 
The  chigo  must  visit  the  temple  several  times  to  pre- 
pare himself.  When  the  festival  opens,  the  young  folk 
and  all  who  take  part  in  the  performances  repair  to  the 
temple,  dressed  in  light,  flowing  gala  clothes.  A great 
two-wheeled  cart,  sometimes  several,  is  brought  out, 
upon  which  rests  a high  frame,  upon  the  top  of  which  is 
perched  a curved  spear.  Upon  a lower  platform  of  this 
frame  is  the  band,  with  drums,  gongs,  and  what  not, 
making  a hideous  kind  of  music.  The  cart,  frame  and 


234 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


all,  decked  out  with  curtains  and  streamers,  is  drawn 
by  a multitude  of  boys  and  men,  by  means  of  a very 
long  rope.  As  they  move  along  the  streets  they  are 
followed  by  crowds  of  people,  for  this  drawing  of  the 
cart  is  considered  an  act  of  merit.  It  is  indeed  a hilari- 
ous time. 

The  mikoshi  is  a decorated  square  shrine  under  a can- 
opy ornamented  with  tinkling  bells  and  chains,  the 
whole  being  borne  upon  a framework  of  poles  upon 
men’s  shoulders.  In  this  portable  shrine  is  the  sacred 
mirror,  and  the  gohei — i.  e .,  white  paper  cut  into 
notches  in  a particular  manner  and  hanging  from  a 
wand.  Upon  the  top  of  the  canopy  is  perched  the 
bronzed  figure  of  the  sacred  phoenix,  which  to  the  cas- 
ual observer  is  a rooster.  As  the  wildly  joyous  crowd 
go  forth  at  night  running  and  yelling  in  concert,  as  they 
leap  and  toss  the  mikoshi  with  uplifted  hands  in  rhyth- 
mical measure,  it  is  indeed  an  exciting  scene.  The 
writer  remembers  distinctly  a scene  of  this  kind  wit- 
nessed by  night  years  ago,  in  the  city  of  Kioto.  He  had 
just  reached  the  eastern  end  of  the  bridge  crossing  the 
river  that  goes  through  the  city.  As  the  rushing,  noisy 
mikoshi  bearers  passed  by  us,  followed  by  multitudes  of 
excited  people,  Dr.  Walter  Lambuth  remarked  that  “ to 
be  met  by  such  an  excited  crowd  in  China  would  be 
dangerous  to  foreigners.”  We  were  not  in  the  least 
molested,  and  enjoyed  the  strange  procession. 

Sometimes,  however,  a Japanese  citizen,  who  is  not 
popular  on  account  of  his  oppressions,  stinginess,  or 
other  fault,  suffers  injury  during  this  festival.  Under 
the  idea  that  the  mikoshi  is  guided  by  the  spirit  of  the 
god,  it  is  borne  to  the  door  of  some  hated  man,  forcible 
entrance  is  made,  and  punishment  inflicted  noon  him  for 
his  wickedness. 


SHINTO  FESTIVALS  AND  GODS. 


235 


The  gosangi  festival  at  Okayama  is  another  local 
festival.  It  is  at  night,  and  hundreds  of  people  from 
city  and  country  assemble  in  the  temple  yard  to  wait 
for  the  throwing  of  the  gosangi.  The  gosangi  is  a sa- 
cred wooden  wand  one  foot  long  and  two  inches  thick, 
and  it  is  believed  that  whoever  can  get  possession 
of  it  and  take  it  to  his  house  will  have  luck  and  bless- 
ings during  the  year.  Accordingly  about  11  o’clock  at 
night  it  is  thrown  right  into  the  crowd,  and  then  follows 
a struggle  to  seize  it  and  run  away.  The  struggle  con- 
tinues sometimes  for  hours,  the  gosangi  being  snatched 
from  one  to  another. 

In  the  smaller  local  festivals,  the  village  god,  some 
ancient  prince  or  father  of  the  district,  a famous  hero 
or  sage  deified  after  death,  is  celebrated  by  the  people 
of  the  village.  One  can  easily  tell  when  a village  fes- 
tival is  on  hand  by  the  noise  and  gayety.  Near  the 
school  where  the  writer  lived  and  taught  was  a great 
grove,  and  in  the  center  of  it  a local  temple  chiefly  Shin- 
to. At  a certain  time  in  the  year  the  festivities  contin- 
ue for  three  days,  and  the  clanging  of  drums,  gongs,  and 
cymbals  was  kept  up  every  night  till  after  midnight,  and 
all  the  day  long. 

Among  the  numerous  household  Shinto  gods  are  the 
following: 

1.  Amaterasu,  sun  goddess,  worshiped  as  the  morn- 
ing and  evening  sun. 

2.  Ebisu,  god  of  money,  often  seen  on  the  god  shelf 
of  business  places. 

3.  Daikoku,  god  of  property  and  estates. 

4.  Sumiyoshi,  faithful  retainer  of  Temmangu. 

5.  Temmangu  (Michizane),  deified  and  worshiped  as 
god  of  learning. 

6.  Inari,  rice  god  and  messenger  of  the  gods. 


236 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


7.  Kojin,  god  of  health  and  the  kitchen. 

8.  Kompira,  protector  against  fire  and  storm,  known 
as  the  sea  god. 

9.  Hachiman,  originally  god  of  war,  also  now  over- 
seer of  family  affairs. 

10.  Jingo  Kogo,  goddess  and  protector  against  disas- 
ter, shipwrecks,  etc. 

The  ihai,  ancestral  tablets,  also  have  place  at  the 
household  altar.  Their  position  fluctuates.  Accord- 
ing to  pure  Shinto,  they  are  reckoned  as  ancestral  spir- 
its of  the  dead,  accounted  to  be  divinities  to  be  prayed 
to / but  according  to  Buddhism,  they  are  departed  souls 
in  purgatory  to  be  prayed  for,  that  they  may  be  deliv- 
ered therefrom.  A festival  of  purification  is  observed 
in  the  following  manner.  A caldron  of  boiling  water 
is  prepared,  and  the  people  gather  around  it;  an  old  wom- 
an dips  a heavy  branch  of  some  bush  into  this  hot  water 
and  brandishes  it  overhead.  The  warm  copious  shower 
falls  upon  her  and  those  near  her,  and  thus  they  are 
purified. 

We  saw  how  in  the  primitive  religion  the  Emperor 
performed  the  ceremony  of  purification  in  behal-f  of  the 
people;  and  it  is  probable  that  this  old  woman  sprink- 
ling the  water  upon  herself  and  the  people  represents 
the  Emperor’s  sister,  who  in  ancient  times  was  high 
priestess  at  the  national  shrine  in  Ise.  The  Shinto  serv- 
ices at  a funeral  are  very  simple.  The  officiating  priest 
always  rides  on  horseback  in  the  funeral  procession. 
It  is  almost  needless  to  say  that  the  reigning  Emperor, 
with  his  august  ancestors,  is  the  head  and  center  of  the 
Shinto  religion,  and  hence  many  opponents  of  Chris- 
tianity try  to  make  the  point  that  to  be  Christian  vio- 
lates one’s  allegiance  to  the  Emperor  as  the  nation’s  di- 
vinely descended  head. 


BUDDHIST  RELIGION. 


237 

II.  The  Buddhist  Religion  and  Ceremonies.* 

Visitors  to  Buddhist  temples  have  often  remarked 
the  resemblance  of  Buddhism  to  Roman  Catholicism. 
There  is,  however,  a wide  difference  as  to  the  original 
doctrines  of  the  two  systems.  Buddhism  knows  nothing 
of  salvation  by  grace,  but  only  by  works;  self-perfec- 
tionment  is  by  self-denial  and  meditation  without  the 
vicarious  death  of  a Redeemer.  It  does  not  teach  the 
immortality  of  the  soul  in  a way  that  Christians  could 
accept,  for  the  state  of  Nirvana  is  practically  the  loss 
of  individual  existence,  and  Buddhism  is  silent  concern- 
ing the  existence  of  one  supreme  God,  Creator  of  the 
heavens  and  the  earth. 

But  there  is  a real  and  very  striking  resemblance  be- 
tween Buddhism  and  Romanism  in  their  outward  sys- 
tem and  ceremony.  Their  sacred  books  have  never  been 
translated  into  Japanese,  but,  like  the  Romanist,  their 
ritual  service  is  in  a foreign  tongue,  and  it  is  said  that 
the  priests  themselves  have  an  imperfect  understanding 
of  the  Sanskrit,  or  even  the  Chinese  version  of  their  sa- 
cred books.  Their  priests,  excepting  one  sect,  are  cel- 
ibates like  the  Romish  monks;  they  have  monasteries, 
nunneries,  and  orders  of  begging  devotees;  they  have 
pilgrimages,  penances,  fasts,  and  gods,  the  tinkling  of 
bells,  counting  of  beads  with  their  prayers,  processions, 
sale  of  indulgences,  and  a scale  of  merit,  altars,  candles, 
images,  pictures,  incense,  relics,  prayers  for  the  dead, 
canonizing  of  saints;  and,  instead  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
“Mother  of  God,”  they  have  Maya,  the  “Mother  of 
Buddha.”  Though  a Hindoo  woman,  unto  her  a temple 
stands  dedicated  on  the  top  of  a mountain  near  Kobe. 

There  is  also  in  Buddhism  an  elaborate  system  of  priest- 


* See  page  65  jf. 


japan:  country,  court,  teople. 


238 

ly  hierarchy,  with  its  gradations  and  orders,  from  the 
patriarch  or  archbishop  at  the  head  of  the  whole  sect, 
down  to  the  servant  or  apprenticed  novices,  mere  boys 
in  training. 

Buddhist  temples,  unlike  the  Shinto,  are  noticeable 
for  size  and  interior  splendor,  at  least  these  are  the 
characteristics  of  their  head  temples.  These,  usually 
built  upon  an  elevation  either  within  or  just  outside 
the  town  and  overlooking  it,  are  often  the  best  and  most 
conspicuous  buildings  in  the  place.  They  serve  not 
only  for  worship,  but  also  for  recreation  and  amuse- 
ment, being  surrounded  by  spacious  grounds  adorned 
with  groves,  gardens,  and  walks.  This  is  especially 
true  of  the  Asakusa  temple  in  Tokyo  where  are  booths, 
tea  houses,  sorcerers,  fortune  tellers,  jugglers,  singing 
girls,  and  the  like.  As  one  approaches,  the  most  no- 
ticeable thing  about  a Buddhist  temple  is  the  gracefully 
curved  roof  with  its  heavy  tilings,  supported,  as  he 
afterwards  sees,  by  massive  columns.  As  you  enter  the 
gateway  into  the  temple  yard — a very  imposing  gate, 
usually — there  is  on  one  side  a belfry  where  hangs  the 
large  cup-shaped  bell,  that  is  sounded  not  by  the  striking 
of  a metal  clapper,  but  by  a swinging  beam  of  wood  with 
which  men  strike  the  bell  on  the  outside.  Then  a few 
steps  farther  in  is  the  stone  laver  like  the  one  before 
Solomon’s  temple  in  Jerusalem,  where  the  people  wash 
their  hands  before  worshiping.  And  on  either  side  of 
the  paved  or  gravel  walk  leading  to  the  temple  there  is 
frequently  a row  of  stone  lanterns  about  five  feet  high. 
When  you  reach  the  entrance  to  the  temple  you  see  on 
either  side  a hideous,  large  image,  generally  painted 
red,  representing  the  guardian  gods.  These  idols  are 
naked  giants,  with  eyes  and  features  distorted.  One 
has  his  mouth  open;  the  other  has  his  clinched.  One  has 


BUDDHIST  TEMPLE. 


(239) 


240 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


a club  in  liis  right  hand,  the  left  hanging  freely  down; 
the  other  stretches  out  both  hands  as  if  repelling  some 
one  or  parrying  a blow,  one  list  being  tightly  clinched. 
These  hideous  gods  are  the  sentinels  that  guard  the 
sacred  place.  In  some  temples  the  guardian  gods  are 
different  from  each  other,  one  being  the  thunder  god, 
painted  red;  the  other,  the  wind  god,  painted  blue. 
These  also  have  distorted  eves  and  features,  and  hold 
thunderbolts  in  their  hands,  or  bags  of  wind  to  strike 
the  approaching  worshipers  with  awe.  Sometimes,  too, 
the  guardians  of  the  temple  are  a pair  of  images  in 
stone  of  the  sacred  dogs,  who  sit  on  their  haunches  in 
front  of  the  temple. 

Ascending  the  flight  of  wide  steps  at  the  entrance, 
you  reach  the  floor  of  the  colonnade  that  runs  along  the 
whole  front  of  the  temple  or  frequently  around  the 
three  sides  of  it.  And  here  are  the  massive  pillars  that 
supjjortthe  great  and  heavy  roof.  For  example,  Kamp- 
fer,  over  two  hundred  years  ago,  visited  a temple  at 
Kioto,  the  great  roof  of  which  was  supported  by  ninety- 
four  immense  pillars,  three  feet  through,  and  all  painted 
red.  And  to-day  the  mammoth  Hongwanji  temple  in 
Kioto  has  scores  of  great  wooden  pillars  supporting  its 
enormous,  curved  roof.  These  columns,  with  the  beams 
and  cornices  above  them,  are  painted,  gilded,  or  lac- 
quered; sometimes  the  native  wood  is  polished  and  left 
unpainted.  The  beams  and  cornices  are  decorated  with 
carved  dragons,  bulls,  hares,  storks,  and  tortoises. 
And  all  manner  of  mythical  scenes  and  legends  are  rep- 
resented in  the  interior  decorations  of  such  a temple. 
In  the  gables  are  carved  figures  of  animals  that  enter 
into  the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac,  as  received  from 
China.  After  gazing  for  a while  at  the  many  pillars 
and  the  elaborate  carvings,  you  then  take  in  the  interior 


BUDDHIST  CEREMONIES. 


211 


plan  of  the  buildings.  Within  the  colonnade,  and  sep- 
arated from  it  either  by  latticed  partitions  or  paper 
shojis,  is  the  hall,  and  in  this  hall  the  people  assemble 
occasionally  to  hear  the  priests  as  they  sit  and  preach, 
or  they  enter  here  simply  to  pray.  Again,  in  the  rear 
part  of  this  hall  is  another  inclosure  containing  the  altar 
and  shrine,  and  within  the  shrine  the  image  of  Buddha 
and  two  or  three  subordinate  gods.  This  shrine  is 
beautifully  decorated  with  lacquer  and  gold,  and  there 
are  flowers,  candles,  and  holy  incense,  reminding  one  of 
the  altar  and  crucifix  of  a Roman  Catholic  church.  It 
is  here  in  front  of  the  altar  and  shrine  that  the  priests 
beat  the  gong,  chant  prayers,  and  read  portions  of  the 
sacred  books  which  it  is  said  they  scarcely  understand. 
On  either  side  of  the  shrine  are  hung  in  order  upon  the 
walls  the  name  tablets,  names  received  after  death  of 
the  dead  in  the  parish — that  is,  of  those  whose  families 
have  paid  money  enough  to  get  the  priest’s  prayers  for 
parents  and  other  kindred  believed  to  be  in  purgatory. 

Behind  the  temple,  or  adjoining  it,  are  the  rooms  for 
the  priests  and  the  attendants  who  have  charge  of  the 
place.  In  a great  temple  there  is  quite  a retinue  of 
priests  with  their  attendants.  Those  priests  are  sup- 
posed to  be  without  wives,  and  they  go  with  shaven 
heads  and  peculiar  dress.  Over  a loose  long  gown  of 
white  cotton  they  wear  another  with  wide  sleeves  but 
not  so  long,  made  of  some  thin  black  or  yellow  stuff. 
Hanging  loosely  from  the  left  shoulder  and  passing  under 
the  right  arm,  a wide  band  of  the  same  material  passing 
across  the  breast,  is  a loose  cape  of  saffron  color.  This 
represents  the  skin  which  the  early  disciples  of  Buddha 
wore  in  India,  and  is  a sign  of  their  poverty  and  self- 
denial.  Not  unfrequently  the  familiar  rosary  is  seen 
in  their  hands.  The  daily  services  of  the  priests  begin 
16 


242  JAPAN : COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 

before  daylight.  Residing  once  near  a temple,  the 
writer  remembers  how,  before  daybreak  every  morning, 
the  temple  drum  and  gong  were  invariably  heard.  At 
first  the  strokes  were  low  and  slowly  measured,  but 
gradually  grew  more  rapid,  and  were  continued  for  an 
hour  or  more.  At  the  same  hour  another  priest  began 
his  prayers,  chanting  his  sacred  books.  An  important 
part  of  the  prayers  were  the  masses  for  the  dead  who 
had  gone  from  the  parish  into  purgatory.  But  for 
those  not  able  to  pay  the  required  price  prayer  was  of- 
fered, not  by  name  but  by  wholesale,  as  it  were.  Of 
course  such  wholesale  prayer  could  not  be  so  efficacious 
in  delivering  miserable  souls  out  of  torment;  but  as  the 
poor  people  could  not  help  it,  their  kindred  must  stay 
longer  in  that  place.  From  these  paid  prayers  for  the 
dead,  from  funeral  fees,  and  from  the  voluntary  contri- 
butions of  rice,  money,  and  sake,  the  priests  got  their 
living.  Some  of  the  head  temples  own  lands  and  other 
properties  that  yield  a yearly  income. 

Besides  the  regular  priestly  order,  there  are  enthu- 
siasts or  impostors,  pilgrim  vagabonds  living  by  beg- 
ging, by  pretending  to  drive  away  evil  spirits,  to  find 
lost  things,  discover  robbers,  interpret  dreams,  decide 
the  guilt  or  innocence  of  accused  persons,  predict  the 
future,  and  cure  diseases  which  they  perform  through 
the  medium  of  a child  into  whom  they  pretend  the  spirit 
enters,  thereby  being  able  to  answer  all  questions. 

One  sect,  the  Nichiren,  the  most  superstitious  and 
bigoted  of  all  the  Buddhists,  claims  special  power  in 
driving  away  evil  spirits  from  houses  and  from  persons.. 
The  fox  spirit  often  possesses  people  of  a supersti- 
tious turn,  who  are  nervously  reduced,  producing  a 
sort  of  double  self  that  is  very  tormenting  to  the  pos- 
sessed victim.  Prof.  Chamberlain,  of  the  Imperial 


BUDDHIST  FESTIVALS. 


243 


University,  had  a few  years  ago,  when  traveling  on  foot 
in  the  country,  a curious  experience.  It  was  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1879,  a great  cholera  year,  and  upon  entering  a 
village  in  the  evening  he  and  his  companion  were  ac- 
cused of  bringing  into  their  village,  at  that  sad  season, 
the  evil  spirit  of  tlie  cholera.  After  much  parleying  and 
standing  in  the  drenching  rain  with  night  approaching, 
the  learned  professor  and  his  companion  agreed  that  the 
priests  might  be  sent  for.  They  came  in  white  vestments, 
bearing  heavy  branches  of  trees  in  their  hands.  Wav- 
ing these  dripping  branches  over  them,  the  priests  then 
struck  them  on  the  back  with  swords,  and  after  that  the 
spirit  was  supposed  to  be  driven  away,  and  they  were 
allowed  lodging  for  the  night. 

Only  a few  words  about  Buddhist  festivals.  The 
festivals  described  on  pages  199-201  were  social  or  na- 
tional occasions,  and  only  indirectly  religious.  The  one 
most  written  about  by  foreigners  takes  place  the  7th  of 
the  7th  month,  at  Nagasaki,  and  is  called  the  feast  of 
the  lanterns,  or  Tanabata,  after  the  name  of  the  star 
Weaver,  in  the  Milky  Way.  This  is  to  give  help  and 
comfort  to  the  departed  dead.  At  this  festival  the 
priests  perform  special  services,  and  at  night  there  is 
much  masquerading  both  of  men  and  of  women. 

The  festival  to  Kwannon,  the  goddess  of  mercy,  is 
another  night  festival.  The  people  flock  out  to  watch 
the  stars,  anxiously  waiting  to  see  a shooting  star,  or 
the  conjunction  of  two  stars;  and  the  climax  is  reached 
when  the  seven  stars  come  into  a certain  position  in  the 
heavens,  which  appear  to  be  just  over  the  roof  of  the 
temple,'  and  which  they  are  taught  to  believe  fall  into 
the  temple. 

The  bathing  of  Buddha’s  image  was  generally  ob- 
served in  former  times,  and  is  still  observed  to  some 


244  japan:  country,  court,  people. 

extent.  A little  image  is  brought  out  and  the  sweet 
juice  of  some  vegetable  is  rubbed  over  it,  a little  shrine 
is  made  for  it  and  it  is  then  decorated  with  flowers. 
This  bathing  of  Buddha  is  done  as  an  act  of  merit  for 
the  soul.  The  Buddhists,  unlike  the  Shintoists,  hold 
preaching  meetings.  Once  a year,  especially  in  winter 
or  spring,  they  hold  protracted  services.  Every  day  for 
ten  days  or  two  weeks  preaching  meetings  are  held  in 
the  temple  by  the  priests.  The  time  between  these 
services  is  spent  as  a sort  of  holiday;  occasionally  meet- 
ings are  held  in  their  houses,  the  congregation  consist- 
ing of  the  neighbors.  The  first  and  fifteenth  days  of 
every  month  are  universal  holidays,  partly  social,  partly 
religious. 

Hyakumanben  was,  according  to  the  literal  meaning 
of  the  word,  a million  prayers.  These  were  prayers 
for  persons  dangerously  ill.  The  person  about  to  die 
sits  in  the  center  of  a ring  of  persons,  and  the  rosary  is 
passed  around,  each  one  repeating  certain  words  and 
counting  a bead.  This  is  repeated  many  times.  There 
is  another  Buddhist  ceremony  which  takes  place  at 
night.  The  writer  once  witnessed  it  at  Arima,  in  the 
hills  a few  miles  back  of  Kobe.  On  an  appointed 
night  the  people  march  from  the  temple  to  a certain 
level  open  space  and  form  a great  ring.  In  the  center 
is  built  a rude  platform  upon  which  stand  the  leaders, 
who,  when  they  drawl  out  certain  words,  all  the  peo- 
ple in  the  ring  cry  out  in  a kind  of  chorus,  meanwhile 
stamping  and  swaying  their  bodies.  Upon  inquiry  it 
was  stated  by  a Japanese  on  the  spot  that  the  object  of 
this  performance  was  to  get  the  soul  of  some  one  out  of 
purgatory.  The  doctrine  of  purgatory  has  a large 
place  in  the  belief  of  Buddhists,  as  of  Romanists;  and 
many  are  the  awful  pictures  of  the  unspeakably  horri- 


BUDDHIST  CEREMONIES. 


245 


ble  tortures  which  Emma  Sama,  the  god  of  hell,  inflicts 
upon  the  wicked.  At  the  temple  shops  of  image  deal- 
ers such  pictures  are  always  on  sale.* 

The  Japanese  are  by  nature  lively  and  gay,  but  in 
the  bottom  of  their  hearts  are  inclined  to  religion. 
This  is  shown  in  all  their  history.  Their  acceptance  of 
Buddhism  in  the  sixth  century,  and  the  great  success 
which  the  Roman  Catholics  had  during  the  sixteenth 
century,  in  winning  converts  both  from  the  highest 
ranks  of  life  and  from  the  common  people,  clearly  show 
that  the  Japanese  race  is  inclined  to  religion.  The 
hold  which  many  superstitions  still  have  upon  the 
masses  proves  the  same  thing.  Though  Buddhism  and 
Shintoism  alike  have  undoubtedly  lost  the  influence  once 
held,  there  is  to  this  day  much  evidence  that  speaks  of 
deep  religious  feelings  and  beliefs,  unfortunately  beliefs 
too  often  utterly  false.  For  instance,  the  wayside  gods, 
though  often  neglected,  are  not  forgotten;  one  sees 
them  honored  with  offerings  of  flowers;  the  wayside 
shrine  is  still  in  some  neighborhoods  replenished  with 
fresh  light,  and  the  neck  of  the  idol  bedecked  with  a 
new  red  or  yellow  bib.  Again,  the  little  prayer  flags 
may  still  be  seen  stuck  into  the  ground  by  the  hundreds 
as  you  approach  some  temple  in  the  hills.  And  over 
the  doors  of  many  dwellings  of  the  common  people 
strips  of  paper  or  wooden  tablets  are  tacked  up  with  a 
picture,  or  some  sacred  character  upon  it,  procured 
from  Ise  or  Kompira.  These  are  amulets  or  charms  to 
keep  away  evil  spirits  or  calamities  and  plagues  of  dis- 
ease, fire,  and  storm. 

During  the  Tokugawa  period  the  Buddhist  was  really 

*When  the  writer  first  went  to  Japan,  in  1888,  there  was 
still  celebrated  near  Tokyo,  in  the  month  of  August,  a reli- 
gious festival  to  the  devil. 


246 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


the  established  religion,  and  it  received  rich  endowments 
from  the  government.  At  the  restoration,  in  1868,  it 
was  disestablished,  and  Shinto  was  reinstated  as  the 
officially  authorized  religion  of  the  Emperor  and  his 
court;  accordingly  many  Buddhist  temples  were  “puri- 
fied,” stripped  of  their  images  and  other  paraphernalia 
that  betokened  the  Buddhist  faith,  and  turned  over  to 
Shinto  priests.  But  the  attempt  was  not  successful, 
the  Board  of  Religion  of  the  State  was  abolished  and 
the  Buddhists  regained  some  of  their  lost  prestige. 
To-day  they  are  making  a strong,  not  to  say  desperate, 
elfort  to  maintain  their  footing  against  Christianity 
brought  from  America  and  Europe.  As  a rule  the 
priests  are  not  intelligent  and  are  morally  loose. 
Some  of  the  Buddhists  tliemsslves  have  complained  bit- 
terly of  the  ignorance,  indolence,  and  vice  of  their 
priests. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

JAPANESE  ARTS— A SKETCH . 


Introductory  Remarks. 

Fifty  years  ago  a new  impetus  was  given  to  interna- 
tional arts  and  art  industries  by  the  great  exhibition  in 
London,  opened  by  the  late  Consort  Prince  Albert.  By 
means  of  other  similar  but  larger  displays  in  Vienna, 
Paris,  Philadelphia,  and  Chicago,  a better  acquaintance 
with  the  art  products  of  all  nations  is  possible,  and  we 
are  made  to  see  how  other  peoples  dwelling  on  the  other 
side  of  the  globe,  and  quite  different  from  ourselves  in 
language  and  customs,  have  a sense  of  the  beautiful, 
feelings  of  taste,  and  skill  to  express  those  feelings  in 
their  art.  Like  the  religious  instinct,  the  feeling  of 
the  beautiful  is  natural,  and  therefore  more  or  less  de- 
veloped in  all  nations,  needing  only  to  be  enlightened 
by  true  and  lofty  ideals. 

It  is  remarkable  that  in  no  country  is  the  union  of 
liberal  and  industrial  art  so  close  as  in  Japan,  so  that, 
in  the  language  of  Regamey,  the  artist  workman  and 
the  workman  artist  are  one  person.  No  broad  line  of 
distinction  between  liberal  and  technical  art  exists, 
nor  should  it  exist  anywhere.  From  Plato  down  to 
this  day  all  attempts  to  define  beauty  have  failed,  but 
the  two  important  elements  of  proportion  and  har- 
mony are  no  less  essential  in  industrial  than  in  liberal 
art.  Another  fact  not  generally  appreciated  in  Amer- 
ica is  that  Japanese  industrial  art  has  had  a felt  influ- 
ence upon  the  art  industries  of  Europe  and  America. 

(247) 


248 


JAPAN*:  COUNTRY.  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


Many  examples  might  be  given.  Suffice  it  to  say  that 
the*  exhibit  of  J apanese  art  products  at  our  Centennial 
Exhibition  (1876)  caused  a sensation  in  art  circles;  nor 
was  the  sensation  less  noticeable  two  years  afterwards 
at  Paris;  and  at  the  World’s  Exhibition  at  Chicago  no 
department  received  more  attention  than  the  Japanese 
exhibit  in  art.  The  difference  between  the  growth  of 
art  in  Eastern  Asia  and  that  of  Europe  is  this:  In  the 
latter  the  liberal  arts  of  painting,  sculpture,  etc.,  sep- 
arated from  the  industrial  arts  and  went  far  in  advance, 
whereas  in  China  and  Japan  industrial  art  took  the 
lead.  Again,  in  Europe  architecture  all  but  reached 
perfection — for  instance,  the  Parthenon  at  Athens — 
while  in  Eastern  Asia  it  has  always  been  of  a low  or- 
der. In  representation  of  the  human  form  the  Japa- 
nese as  compared  with  the  Greeks  stand  in  sorry  con- 
trast. The  reason  will  be  shown  later.  India,  Persia, 
China,  Korea,  and  probably  Holland,  are  the  countries 
whence  the  Japanese  received  certain  forms  and  meth- 
ods of  art  production.  The  debt  which  Japan  owes 
China  can  be  told  by  the  simple  words  borrowed , imi- 
tated, excelled.  That  Japan  is  in  advance  of  China  in 
art  culture  is  everywhere  allowed. 

From  1787  to  1830  was  the  acme  of  the  golden  age  of 
art  industry  which  began  with  the  Tokugawa  era. 
Xikko,  with  its  tombed  temples,  rich  in  carvings,  in 
decorations  of  lacquer  and  gold,  is  the  silent  monument 
of  that  age’s  highest  achievement.  The  conditions  and 
characteristics  of  Japanese  art,  though  a subject  of  so 
great  interest,  can  only  be  briefly  considered.  The 
three  conditions  of  successful  art  are  well  fulfilled  in 
Japan:  (1)  an  inborn  passion  for  the  beautiful,  univer- 
sal even  among  the  very  lowest  and  most  ignorant,  who 
often  have  in  the  little  yard  of  their  hovel  home  a pot 


INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS. 


249 

of  flowers  or  a bit  of  green;  (2)  keen  observation  and  a 
dexterous  hand.  A few  years  ago  the  writer  heard  a 
lecture  by  an  Englishman,  accomplished  in  matters  of 
art,  in  which  he  stated  that  the  Japanese  eye  was  so 
keen  and  accurate  that  their  artists  had  caught  certain 
movements  and  poises  of  birds  on  the  wing  which  ar- 
tists of  other  countries  had  not  detected.  The  extraor- 
dinary deftness  of  hand  and  fingers  is  the  result  of 
using  for  successive  ages  the  brush  in  writing.  Almost 
every  Japanese  can  sketch  an  object  or  draw  a map. 
Regamey  tells  us  how  the  saleswoman  in  a seed  shop, 
squatting  in  the  corner  of  her  master’s  shop,  takes  her 
brush  and  on  the  paper  bag  you  are  waiting  for  indi- 
cates in  a few  strokes  the  picture  of  the  plant  which  the 
seed  you  are  buying  will  produce.  In  learning  to 
write  with  a brush  the  difficult  characters  of  their  lan- 
guage, the  Japanese  are  continually  training  both  eye 
and  hand  for  delicate,  accurate,  rapid,  and  easy  execu- 
tion of  lines  and  curves.  (3)  Yet  another  condition  is 
furnished  by  the  varied  and  attractive  natural  world 
surrounding  the  people.  Japan,  like  Greece,  has  all 
the  diversity  of  mountain  and  valley,  winding  coast 
line  with  inlets  and  bays,  peninsulas  and  islands.  In 
picturesque  scenery  of  mountains  and  seas  combined 
it  is  more  than  Switzerland.  Several  less  important 
conditions  in  art  culture  have  likewise  been  fulfilled — 
that  is  to  say,  the  different  branches  of  handicraft  arts 
are  handed  down  in  families,  thus  securing  the  benefit 
of  heredity;  slow  apprenticeship,  the  son  or  the  ap- 
prentice being  put  to  his  life  work  when  a child;  a pow- 
erful memory  and  vivid  imagination,  whereby  the 
scene  or  object  is  held  in  the  mind  for  an  indefinite 
time,  ready  to  be  reproduced  with  realistic  feeling; 
and  patronage  of  great  and  powerful  -nobles.  Artists 


250 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


were  attached  to  the  castle  and  court,  and  their  work 
was  keenly  appreciated  by  lords,  Daimyos,  and  their 
families.  Lastly,  Japanese  artists  had  a contempt  for 
money.  The  artist  worked  on  and  on  for  the  love  of 
art,  without  hurry,  bringing  all  the  concentrated  enthu- 
siasm of  his  soul  upon  his  piece  till  it  was  brought  to 
perfection.  The  workman  artist  of  old  Japan  had  two 
things  greatly  in  his  favor:  (1)  He  was  never  in  a hur- 
ry, had  time  for  study  and  meditation  till  the  idea  and 
form  of  the  object  to  be  reproduced  lived  within  him, 
and  also  abundant  time  did  he  have  for  the  execution  of 
his  idea,  returning  a hundred  times  to  the  same  point 
till  it  was  perfectly  executed;  (2)  he  was  always  sure 
of  appreciation. 

Japan  is  the  land  of  surprises  in  art  as  well  as  in 
other  things.  One  is  often  astonished  at  the  mean  and 
sorry  home  of  the  artist.  It  is  often  nothing  more  than 
a simple  hut,  lacking  all  conveniences  and  comforts, 
and  his  workshop,  like  his  living  room,  is  the  narrow- 
est place.  The  writer  was  once  in  the  little  hovel  of  a 
porcelain  decorator,  and  his  beautifully  done  designs 
were  in  sharp  contrast  with  his  sorry  surroupdings. 
Again,  even  in  the  homes  of  nobles  and  people  of  qual- 
ity, patrons  of  art  and  possessors  of  art  treasures,  one 
is  struck  by  the  absence  of  furniture,  where  everything 
is  simplicity  itself,  but  very  clean.  Where,  then,  is 
their  beautiful  virtu?  The  Japanese  do  not  like  to 
display  their  treasures  and  objects  of  virtu  in  recep- 
tion halls,  parlor,  and  dining  room,  as  we  do.  Their 
collections  are  stored  away  out  of  sight  in  the  godown. 
Occasionally,  and  for  reasons,  they  bring  forth  their 
prized  objects  of  art,  fine  lacquer  ware,  ivory,  porcelain, 
bronzes,  pictures,  silk  robes,  costly  and  rare  swords 
and  armor  handed  down  as  heirlooms,  and  never  more 


INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS. 


251 


than  two  or  three  choice  pieces  at  a time.  A single 
vase,  highly  prized  for  its  beauty  and  perfection  of 
finish,  may  be  set  out  upon  the  raised  dais  of  the  toko- 
noma , or  a rare  picture,  mounted  in  damask  bordering, 
is  hung  upon  the  wall.  After  a time  these  are  stored 
away  and  other  objects  brought  out.  It  is  not  so 
much  as  great  builders  as  in  chaste  and  delicate  dec- 
oration of  small  things  that  their  characteristic  power 
displays  itself.  But,  though  fond  of  decorative  art  of 
every  variety,  and  adepts  in  it  to  a degree  unexcelled 
by  any  other  nation,  there  is  also  delicate  taste  in  its 
display  that  is  more  to  be  admired  than  the  garish  man- 
ner too  often  seen  in  wealthy  American  circles.  So 
that  we  can  say  of  the  better  classes,  at  least,  that  they 
have  a genius  no  less  for  etiquette  than  for  art. 

As  to  the  materials  and  forms  utilized  in  Japanese 
art  there  is  the  richest  variety:  the  Vitruvian  curve, 
arabesque  and  swastika , vines,  flowers,  slender  graceful 
bamboo*  pine  of  normal  and  deformed  shape,  the  leaf- 
less and  blooming  plum,  cherry,  magnolia,  flag  and  rush, 
rocks,  and  water  scences,  gardens  with  little  lakes  and 
miniature  mountains,  certain  beasts,  cranes  and  herons, 
pheasants  and  nightingales,  insects  in  motion  and  at 
rest.  Again,  the  animals  of  the  Zodiac  * appear  in 
Japanese  art,  especially  in  the  gable  carvings  of  some 
of  their  temples. 

As  history  progressed,  its  warriors,  heroes,  battles,  and 
castles  came  in  for  art  treatment.  Like  other  nations, 
their  religions,  both  Buddhist  and  Shinto,  with  their 
mass  of  myths  and  traditions  of  gods  and  goddesses, 
semidivine  ancestors,  deified  Emperors  and  warriors,  de- 
mons and  monsters,  furnished  a rich  field  of  subjects 

*The  Zodiac,  borrowed  from  China,  came  originally  from 
Persia  or  Assyria. 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


252 

for  treatment  in  their  art.  About  all  the  architecture 
worth  mentioning  in  Japan  is  from  Buddhism.  In  the 
interest  of  this  religion,  in  1600  the  government  issued  an 
edict  requiring  the  inside  of  every  house  to  be  adorned 
with  the  carved  image  of  some  Buddhist  divinity.  This 
was  bad  religion,  but  it  stimulated  sculpture  and  carv- 
ing. Besides  all  these,  there  are  four  sacred  creatures 
that  fill  a very  large  place  in  decorative  art,  especially 
bronzes,  fabrics,  and  painting. 

The  Kirin  (unicorn)  means  literally  male  and  female 
animal.  According  to  their  belief,  it  is  represented  in 
their  art  with  the  body  of  a deer,  tail  of  an  ox,  and  a 
single  horn.  As  a messenger  of  mercy  and  benevolence 
it  is  the  noblest  form  of  animal  creation.  As  an  incar- 
nation of  the  five  elements — earth,  fire,  air,  water,  and 
ether — from  which  all  things  are  made,  the  symbols  of 
this  animal  in  philosophy  came  to  be  a cube  and  globe, 
the  pyramid  with  its  five  or  more  stories,  and  the  tuft 
of  rays  on  gravestones. 

The  phoenix  is  the  second  of  the  incarnations,  and  is 
of  wondrous  form  and  mystic  nature.  It  has  the  head 
of  a pheasant,  beak  of  a swallow,  neck  of  a tortoise,  and 
features  of  the  dragon  or  fish.  Its  plumage  represents 
the  five  colors,  symbols  of  the  five  virtues,  uprightness, 
obedience,  justice,  fidelity,  and  benevolence.  To  this 
wonderful  bird  there  are  a thousand  references  in  art  as 
well  as  in  literature. 

The  tortoise  is  a great  and  sacred  creature  in  Japan 
as  well  as  in  China,  as  frequently  appears  in  their  art 
productions.  It  is  not  the  common  tortoise  of  our  nat- 
uralists, but  a creature  that  rose  up  out  of  the  Yellow 
River  in  ages  long  gone  by,  with  mystic  writing  upon 
its  back.  From  this  divine  tortoise  all  other  tortoises 
have  come.  It  lives  a thousand  years,  hence  is  the  sym- 


INTRODUCTOKY  REMARKS. 


253 


bol  of  longevity  in  art  and  in  literature.  In  pictures 
and  in  sculpture  it  is  often  of  colossal  size,  and  serves 
as  pedestal  of  monument  or  tablet.  Often,  too,  the  stork 
stands  on  the  back  of  the  turtle  in  art.  With  the  pow- 
er of  transformation,  it  is  one  of  the  incarnations  of  the 
legions  of  spirits  that  live  around  us. 

The  dragon  is  the  chief  of  the  four.  This  wonderful 
creature  fills  the  largest  place  in  art,  literature,  and  leg- 
end. There  are  nine  kinds  of  dragons,  and  artists  never 
tire  in  representing  them  in  bronze,  in  wood,  and  upon 
fabrics.  It  is  also  pictured  on  the  imperial  coat  of  arms 
and  on  Japanese  coins.  Curled  up  like  a snake,  with 
scales,  tails,  and  horrible  head  mounted  with  horns,  it 
is  the  emblem  of  vigilance  and  strength. 

Another  group  of  designs  often  seen  in  bronze  reliefs 
are  the  seven  gods  of  fortune.  One  frequently  sees  in  Jap- 
anese art  the  same  object  repeated  in  pairs,  a combina- 
tion which  to  us  is  either  unintelligible  or  ill  befitting, 
because  we  do  not  know  the  legend,  tradition,  or  proverb 
referred  to.  F or  example,  the  lion  and  the  peony,  some- 
times seen  on  a kakemono  or  screen,  refer  to  an  ancient 
dance  where  a man  personating  a lion  dances  across  a 
bridge  decorated  with  peonies.  The  deer  and  maple 
scene  originated  with  an  ancient  poem,  and  symbolizes 
quietness  or  solitude.  The  lotus  and  silver  heron  used 
in  temple  art  represent  the  idea  of  purity.  The  plum 
tree  and  nightingale  signify  early  spring,  but  the  crane 
and  turtle  are  emblems  of  prosperity  and  long  life.  The 
homeward  flight  or  alighting  of  wild  geese  is  in  the  lan- 
guage of  art  a reminder  of  home.  The  cuckoo  and  the 
moon  also  sometimes  appear  in  their  art.  This  suggests 
that  while  Japanese  art  is  strongly  realistic,  it  is  also 
abundantly  symbolic. 

No  artists  have  shown  such  ability  to  be  true  to  nature 


254 


JAPAN : COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


in  the  exactest  details  of  her  objects  and  scenes,  and  yet 
there  is  a strange  tendency  to  indulge  in  lawless  fancy, 
whereby  the  unnatural,  the  deformed,  and  hideous  are 
boldly  set  forth.  While  on  the  one  hand  so  fond  of  na- 
ture and  true  to  her  beauties,  there  is  a freak  of  mind 
that  seems  to  revel  in  the  caricature  of  nature’s  defects. 
It  has  been  stated  that  in  Japanese  painting  there  is  no 
perspective.  That  is  not  quite  just;  there  is  some,  but 
not  enough.  This  is  probably  due  to  much  concentra- 
tion upon  miniature  work,  and  in  which  they  excel  all 
other  nations.  In  closing  this  introductory  we  touch 
upon  the  most  serious  defect  of  Japanese  art.  We  have 
already  stated  that  representations  of  the  human  form 
as  compared  with  that  of  the  Greeks  are  very  sorry. 
The  reason  for  this  inability  to  portray  with  life  and 
spirit  the  human  face  and  figure  is  the  unfortunate  lack 
of  any  lofty  idea  of  man.  A high  idea  of  free  individ- 
uality is  not  to  be  found  in  Oriental  nations.  Despot- 
ism had  too  long  crushed  out  the  free  spirit  of  the  man. 
The  serious  defect,  then,  of  Japanese  art,  and  of  litera- 
ture as  well,  is  the  lack  of  lofty  and  grand  ideals. 
There  is  love  of  nature,  of  the  beautiful,  and  a genius 
for  execution;  but  the  deep  and  all-pervading  meaning 
of  nature  and  man’s  place  above  nature  are  wanting — 
wanting  because  the  idea  of  God  over  all,  uniting  all 
and  elevating  ajl  into  one  sublime  whole,  is  lacking. 
Japanese  art  is  marvelously  skillful  and  beautiful,  but 
not  sublime  or  deeply  spiritual.  It  is  handicapped  by 
the  lack  of  Christian  ideas  and  sentiments.  The  same 
is  precisely  true  of  their  literature.  When  Christianity 
shall  have  been  received  into  their  hearts,  and  the  view 
of  things,  especially  of  man,  is  enlarged  and  lifted  up 
to  God,  there  will  spring  forth  from  artists  and  poets  a 
new  creation. 


LACQUER  WORK. 


255 


I.  Lacquer  Work. 

The  art  of  lacquering  is  very  ancient  in  Japan.  Ac- 
cording to  Rein  it  is  at  the  top  of  all  their  industrial 
arts.  In  this  branch  of  their  art  the  Japanese  feeling 
and  skill  more  quickly  asserted  themselves  independ- 
ently of  Chinese  canons,  and  found  a wide  field  for 
their  own  creations;  and  in  no  other  branch  of  art  have 
they  so  easily  won  recognition  among  civilized  nations. 
Indeed,  there  is  no  country  that  can  compete  with  them 
in  the  excellence  and  manifold  applications  of  the  lac- 
quering art.  Lacquer  varnish  is  obtained  from  the  lac 
tree,  a species  of  sumac  growing  in  the  northern  parts 
of  the  main  island.  On  account  of  the  poisonous  action 
of  the  lac,  almost  all  of  the  lac  tapsters  come  from  one 
community.  Going  out  in  the  spring  and  summer,  they 
make  what  is  called  girdle  cutting  through  the  bark  of 
the  tree,  and  with  an  iron  spoon  take  the  sap.  Unlike 
the  sap  of  the  sugar  maple  in  Kentucky  or  Vermont,  the 
lac  of  this  tree  does  not  flow  freely.  The  color  of  the 
raw  lacquer  strained  and  ready  for  market  is  from  a 
gray  to  a tan  brown,  and  it  is  a syrupy,  sticky  liquid. 
Unlike  our  copal  varnish,  which  is  an  artificial  mixture, 
lacquer  varnish  is  a ready-made  product  of  nature. 
The  following  are  some  of  its  remarkable  qualities: 
(1)  Gives  off  a poisonous  vapor.  (2)  Turns  black 
when  exposed  to  the  light.  (3)  Is  thinned  with  pul- 
verized camphor — a liquid  thinned  by  a solid.  (4) 
Has  great  hardness  when  it  dries,  and  a mirrorlike  luster 
that  increases  with  time.  (5)  Dries  best  in  a damp  at- 
mosphere. (6)  Resists  destructive  agencies,  such  as 
the  heat  of  boiling  water,  frost,  etc.,  to  such  a degree 
that  its  durability  is  measured  by  decades  and  centu- 
ries. For  instance,  in  the  Berlin  museum  is  a little  lac- 
quered box  a hundred  and  eighty  years  old,  and  its 


256 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


luster  is  as  if  it  were  of  yesterday.  (7)  Still  an- 
other excellence  is  that  it  may  be  applied  to  every 
namable  article  or  object  that  has  a smooth  surface, 
from  the  tiny  medicine  box  to  the  architectural  orna- 
mentation of  palaces  and  temples;  to  articles  made  of 
wood,  sword  scabbards,  toilet,  and  present  boxes,  or 
cabinets;  metals  of  all  kinds,  papier-mache,  leather,  pa- 
per, horn,  tortoise  shell,  unglazed  clay  and  porcelain 
ware.  At  Nikko,  a temple  dedicated  to  one  of  the 
great  Shoguns  has  the  floor  of  the  outside  gallery  in 
black  lacquer  upon  which  people  walk  barefooted;  and 
a sacred  bridge  in  the  same  place,  over  which  a reli- 
gious procession  is  made  once  a year  is  done  in  red 
lacquer.  Frequently  the  columns  of  imperial  palaces 
and  great  temples  are  finished  in  red  lacquer,  put  on 
thick  by  successive  coatings.  There  are  two  or  three 
distinct  classes  who  engage  in  lacquering.  There  is 
first  the  lacquer  artisan,  whose  business  it  is  to  prepare 
the  piece  by  careful  smoothing  of  the  grain,  filling  up 
holes  and  joints  with  a kind  of  paste,  polishing  the 
surface,  and  then  laying  on  the  solid  background  of 
lacquer  by  many  successive  coatings  of  varnish,  care- 
fully drying  and  polishing  each  coating  till  at  last  a 
lacquer  ground  is  obtained  as  smooth  and  lustrous  as 
plate  glass.  Sometimes  as  many  as  twelve,  or  even 
twenty  lacquer  varnisliings  are  put  on  the  same  surface. 
If  the  piece  is  to  be  plain  lacquer  with  one  color, 
nothing  more  is  needed. 

A second  and  superior  class  are  not  artisans  but  art- 
ists, experts  in  lacquer  painting  and  decorating.  These, 
handling  the  brush  and  other  delicate  instruments  as 
real  artists,  and  putting  on  the  designs  in  colors,  gold, 
silver,  or  what  not,  do  not  work  simply  according  to 
pattern,  but  devise  their  own  designs  from  nature. 


LA.CQUER  WORK. 


257 


There  are  divers  methods  and  materials  in  lacquer  dec- 
oration, yielding  different  effects  or  styles.  Besides  the 
plain  lacquering  in  one  color,  as  indicated,  there  are 
styles  in  variegated  colors  and  shades,  all,  however,  on 
a flat  surface.  For  instance,  there  is  a combination  of 
the  four  colors,  black,  red,  yellow,  and  green,  which 
produces  a striking  mottled  effect.  There  is  also  imi- 
tation of  wood;  for  instance,  a vase  which  Rein  found 
in  a London  shop  was  lacquered  in  imitation  of  red 
sandal  wood.  It  was  three  feet  high,  price  five  hundred 
dollars.  Again,  there  is  gold,  silver,  bronze,  and  tin 
lacquering,  on  a flat  surface,  obtained  by  sifting  or 
sprinkling  the  jmlverized  metal  dust  upon  the  lacquer 
while  it  is  moist,  and  when  it  has  dried  and  the  loosely 
adhering  particles  are  carefully  rubbed  off,  then  a fresh 
coating  of  transparent  varnish  is  laid  on.  In  the  same 
way  lacquering  in  powdered  mother-of-pearl  is  pro- 
duced. The  oldest  preserved  specimen  of  lacquered 
ware  is  a scarf  box  in  which  the  priest  used  to  keep  the 
scarfs  of  his  order  when  not  worn  across  the  shoulder. 
It  is  black,  and  dates  from  the  seventh  century.  In  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  the  nobles  at  Kioto  be- 
came stylish  enough  to  drive  ox  carts  lacquered  in  black 
and  gold,  stylish  carts  of  state.  Afterwards  great  prog- 
ress was  seen  in  that,  besides  the  ground  of  plain  gold, 
sprinkled  gold,  and  in  imitation  of  the  pear,  shark’s  skin, 
and  grain  of  native  wood,  many  elaborate  designs  were 
introduced  for  decoration,  blooming  plants,  vines,  ara- 
besques, bits  of  bamboo  branch  all  on  a flat  surface,  and 
in  colors  of  black,  red,  and  gold,  etc. 

But  a new  feature  of  great  importance  was  invented 
about  1400  A.D. — namely,  lacquering  in  relief.  In  the 
Tokugawa  period,  from  1681  to  1709,  the  lacquer’s  art 
reached  the  highest  point  of  perfection,  and  many  of 
17 


258 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


tlie  small  chests,  writing  utensils,  cases  for  keeping  and 
sending  presents,  sword  scabbards,  etc.,  in  raised  gold 
are  said  to  be  veritable  masterpieces.  Landscapes, 
streams  and  banks,  mountains,  clouds,  geese,  animals, 
trees,  and  flowers,  are  built  up  in  low  relief  by  succes- 
sive layers  of  lacquer  varnish,  in  gold  or  bronze  paste. 
The  vase  mentioned  above  in  imitation  of  red  sandal 
wood,  was  decorated  with  raised  gold  work,  and  inlaid 
with  ivory,  and  represented  the  seven  wise  men  of  Chi- 
na, cranes,  and  bamboo.  By  combining  the  carving 
and  inlaying  with  the  lacquering  in  relief,  the  most 
elaborate  and  beautiful  designs  have  been  produced. 
For  illustration,  take  the  cover  of  a box  given  by  Rein, 
and  done  by  one  of  the  old  masters.  Upon  a ground 
done  in  arabesque,  the  flowering  branch  of  some  shrub  or 
tree,  with  its  leaves  and  twigs,  its  full-blown  bloom  and 
buds,  and  two  humming  birds  hovering  above,  is  all 
wrought  out  in  carving  and  in  relief,  making  a most  strik- 
ing picture.  Nor  has  the  artistic  skill  died  out.  In 
1878  there  was  in  the  Japansese  collection  at  Paris  a 
piece  which  attracted  attention  for  the  elegance  and 
richness  of  its  lacquer  decoration.  It  was  a three- 
winged screen,  and  even  in  the  presence  of  the  best  art 
products  from  India,  France,  and  England  made  a great 
impression  upon  lovers  of  art.  Quoting  from  Rein: 
“A  more  beautiful  ornamentation  in  raised  gold  lacquer 
work  is  scarcely  conceivable  than  the  magnificently  exe- 
cuted red-and-white  peony  blossom  in  gold  and  silver, 
chrysanthemums  and  other  flowers  with  leaves  which 
adorn  this  screen.”  It  was  awarded  the  gold  medal  and 
was  sold  for  sixty  thousand  francs.  Still  another  fea- 
ture of  Japanese  lacquering  is  upon  porcelain  and 
bionze.  This  is  not  an  uncommon  variation  now  used 
in  decorating  bronze  and  porcelain  vases. 


BRONZE  WORK  AND  SCULPTURE. 


259 


II.  Bronze  Work  and  Sculpture. 

In  an  earlier  period  religion  did  much  to  promote  the 
metal  arts  by  the  demand  created  for  images,  bells,  and 
censers.  But  in  the  Middle  Ages,  when  all  the  upper 
classes  not  only  professed  but  practiced  war,  the  for- 
ging of  weapons  and  armor  became  the  important  indus- 
try of  the  nation.  During  this  long  period  of  war  the 
sword  smith  stood  in  the  ranks  of  the  learned  profes- 
sion, as  we  have  already  seen.  For  centuries  veritable 
artists  devoted  themselves  to  this  honorable  calling, 
making  a blade  which  for  temper  and  edge  could  set  at 
defiance  the  famous  swords  of  Damascus  and  Toledo. 
It  was  not  only  the  forging  and  tempering  that  called 
forth  such  patient  and  enthusiastic  effort,  but  it  was  the 
work  of  other  artists  to  decorate  the  hilt  and  finish  the 
scabbard,  so  that  sword  making  engaged  the  best  effort 
of  two  classes  of  workmen  artists,  one  in  metals,  one 
in  lacquering.  It  is  said  that  the  Goto  family,  noted 
as  sword  smiths,  took  the  designs  of  the  celebrated  Tosa 
school  of  painters,  reproducing  them  in  miniature  upon 
their  swords.  It  was  a great  honor  to  be  the  fortunate 
owner  of  a sword  engraved  with  the  name  of  one  of  the 
famous  sword  smiths,  and  for  such  blades  fabulous 
prices  were  often  paid.  It  was  a great  honor,  too,  to 
have  many  of  these  precious  blades,  some  handed  down 
from  warrior  ancestors,  some  received  as  presents,  and 
others  captured  from  the  slain  enemy.  A poor,  illy 
clad  man,  wearing  costly  swords  at  his  belt,  was  more 
honored  than  one  in  rich  costume  with  a common 
sword.  These  traditions  and  sentiments  naturally  stim- 
ulated the  art  of  the  sword  smith.  Masamune,  who 
lived  at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century,  was  the 
most  famous  of  all  the  sword  smiths;  and  the  Myochin 
family  was  similarly  distinguished  as  armor  makers. 


260 


japan:  country,  court,  peoplk. 


An  eagle,  now  in  the  Kensington  Museum,  London, 
forged  by  one  of  the  Myochins,  is  an  admirable  exam- 
ple of  their  art,  and  cost  five  thousand  dollars.  When 
the  Iyeyasu  dynasty  of  Shoguns  was  firmly  established 
upon  the  throne,  and  wars  ceased  in  the  land,  other 
branches  of  metal  arts  once  more  received  considera- 
tion. So  that  when  the  country  was  opened  to  foreign- 
ers in  1868,  there  was  no  form  of  metal  ornamentation 
except  galvanizing  not  perfectly  understood  by  the  na- 
tives. The  precious  metals,  as  well  as  copper,  bronze, 
steel,  and  iron,  all  yielded  to  the  skillful  hand  and  ar- 
tistic spirit  of  the  workmen  artists  who  understood  per- 
fectly the. different  methods  of  decorating  and  finishing: 
casting,  embossing,  hammering,  turning,  engraving, 
chasing,  inlaying,  plating,  damascening,  and  coloring. 
As  an  example  in  iron  work,  take  one  of  their  cast-iron 
kettles.  The  kettle  is  the  only  vessel  of  the  household 
class  of  utensils  that  is  decorated.  The  cover  is  usual- 
ly made  of  bronze.  Tablets  of  copper  plate,  bordered 
in  thick  silver  wire,  are  inlaid  on  the  side  of  the  kettle, 
and  on  one  of  those  plates  there  may  be  an  inlaid  cher- 
ry tree  and  a nightingale  perched  in  the  branches.  The 
forged  handle  and  the  copper  cover  may  also  be  deco- 
rated with  inlaid  work.  Speaking  of  inlaid  work,  it 
should  be  remarked  that  the  Japanese  understand  the 
methods  of  enameling  upon  metal,  damascening  and  cloi- 
sonne work.  They  have  even  perfected  a mode  of  inlay- 
ing in  cast  iron,  as  in  forged  iron,  by  a peculiar  process 
of  softening  the  surface  at  the  point  where  the  inlaying  is 
to  be  done.  Many  of  their  large  and  beautiful  bronze 
vases  are  first  cast  and  then  softened  at  certain  points, 
and  finally  treated  with  inlaid  and  carved  designs  of 
elaborate  patterns.  They  have  perfected  three  forms  of 
damascening:  (a)  The  wire  or  narrow  strips  of  gold  and 


BRONZE  WORK  AND  SCULPTURE.  261 

silver  fixed  in  the  furrows  rise  above  the  surface,  like 
low  relief;  (b)  the  .inlaid  precious  metal  does  not  pro- 
ject, but  is  fiat  with  the  surface;  (c)  there  is  a meshed 
or  netted  work  upon  the  surface.  Another  form  of 
treatment  must  be  mentioned— namely,  cloisonne  enam- 


GREAT IMAGE  OF  BUDDHA, 

cling  upon  metal  or  porcelain.  Fine  filigree  bands  of 
copper  are  fixed  to  the  metal  surface  by  soldering,  and 
the  inclosed  space  is  filled  up  in  different  patterns  with 
the  enamel  of  pulverized  glass,  powder  of  lead,  etc., 


262 


japan  : country,  court,  people. 


and  fused  by  heat.  By  repeating  the  enameling  an  ef- 
fect in  relief  is  produced.  Upon  porcelain,  too,  cloi- 
sonne enamel  has  been  applied.  Another  resource  of 
decoration  developed  by  Japanese  artists  in  metal  is  the 
coloring  effects.  They  give  special  attention  to  the 
color,  brilliancy,  and  sparkle  of  the  metals  to  be  used, 
and  sort  out  and  combine  their  colors  with  all  the  care 
of  the  painter.  Giving  his  cast  iron  a dead  black  or 
steel  blue,  and  combining  with  bronze  and  other  metal- 
lic colors,  he  heightens  the  effect  of  the  decorating. 
Besides  the  vases  and  censers  of  bronze,  there  are  nu- 
merous images  and  temple  bells  upon  which  they  ex- 
pend their  best  skill.  These  images  often  astonish  one 
by  their  great  size  and  exceedingly  fine  casting;  the  bells 
likewise  are  numerous,  and  many  of  them  true  monu- 
ments of  the  molder’s  art.  Among  the  many  images 
of  Buddha  there  are  two  that  are  most  noted  because 
of  their  colossal  proportions:  one  at  Kara,  the  other 
at  Kamakura.  As  for  the  temple  bells,  the  tourist 
in  Japan  should  be  sure  to  see  the  one  at  Kioto, 
and  hear  the  one  in  the  wood  on  Lake  Biwa.  When 
heard  on  a summer  evening,  sounding  far  over  the  lake 
through  the  peaceful  country,  the  impression  upon  the 
mind  of  the  stranger  will  never  be  forgotten.  Often 
has  the  writer  sat  in  silence  in  the  evening  listening 
to  the  sweet  tones  of  their  temple  bells,  and  had  min- 
gled feelings  of  enjoyment  and  sadness.  No  church 
bell  which  the  writer  has  heard  in  America  has  the 
mellow  music  of  the  temple  bell  in  Japan. 

There  is  little  space  to  tell  of  their  polished  steel  mir- 
rors. At  the  back  they  are  decorated  in  relief  with 
legendary  persons,  flowers,  mottoes,  etc.  It  has  been 
known  for  a long  time  that  some  of  these  metallic  mir- 
rors, when  held  up  to  reflect  the  sunlight  upon  the  wall, 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


264 

mirrored  also  the  raised  figures  at  the  back,  and  hence 
they  were  called  magic  mirrors.  Much  lias  been  writ- 
ten about  this  curious  phenomenon,  and  various  explana- 
tions given. 

There  are  many  tiny  pieces  of  metal  work,  decora- 
tions for  swords,  medicine  cases,  pipes,  netsukes , 
which  are  marvels  both  of  the  patience  and  delicate 
skill  of  Japanese  artists.  These  little  articles,  with 
their  chasing,  carving,  inlaying,  and  so  on,  represent  in 
miniature  an  entire  landscape.  For  effective  combina- 
tion of  materials  and  of  colors  to  produce  an  appro- 
priate effect,  and  for  the  exceedingly  delicate  and  at  the 
same  time  most  accurate  details  of  the  work,  the  Japa- 
nese artists  are  unexcelled  by  those  of  any  other  nation. 
It  is  only  when  the  attempt  is  made  to  reproduce  the 
human  form  in  marble  that  they  fail  to  impart  life  and 
spirit,  and  fall  below  the  Greeks. 

III.  Painting. 

For  a long  time  there  has  been  an  enormous  con- 
sumption of  pictures  and  illustrated  albums,  copies  of 
famous  artists  treating  of  every  possible  subject.  In 
the  earlier  periods  three  schools  of  painting  had  a pow- 
erful influence:  the  Chinese,  Korean,  and  Buddhist. 
The  beginning  of  the  Imperial  Academy  dates  from  the 
first  of  the  eighth  century;  but  we  do  not  dwell  here, 
because  we  are  seeking  something  more  distinctly  Jap- 
anese. Of  Kanawoka,  who  flourished  until  the  begin- 
ning of  the  ninth  century,  remarkable  stories  are  told. 
One  tells  of  his  horse,  painted  on  a screen  in  a temple, 
which  was  so  lifelike  that  at  night  quitting  his  frame  he 
galloped  through  the  cultivated  land  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, greatly  to  the  annoyance  of  the  farmers.  Not- 
withstanding such  exaggerations,  he  was  really  one  of 


PAINTING. 


2(55 

Japan's  greatest  painters.  One  of  liis  pictures  is  said 
to  compare  favorably  with  the  work  of  the  Italian  mas- 
ters three  centuries  later.  Landscapes,  animal  life, 
and  figures  were  all  produced  by  his  brush.  One  of  his 
disciples,  Kose,  devoting  himself  to  religious  subjects, 
has  left  a famous  painting,  the  representation  of  the 
tortures  of  the  damned  in  Hades.  Not  till  the  begin- 
ning of  the  eleventh  century  did  there  arise  what  might 
be  called  a Japanese  school  of  painting  (Yamato-e)  * 
Though  distinguished  for  its  brilliant  coloring,  it  re- 
tained the  Chinese  defect  as  to  the  human  figure  and 
artificial  face.  Along  with  this  Yamato-e  school  there 
appeared  a rollicking  priest  named  Toba,  who  started  a 
style  of  comedy  and  caricature,  an  Oriental  Puck  who 
was  original,  simple,  and  skillful,  and  who  could  have 
made  people  laugh  innocently  had  he  not  have  been  so 
coarse  and  vulgar.  The  troublesome  times  and  civil 
wars  in  the  early  Middle  Ages  were  very  unfavorable  to 
the  progress  of  painting.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  under  the  luxuriant  Shoguns  and 
Regents  of  the  Kamakura  capital,  languishing  art  be- 
gan to  revive,  and  the  great  Tosa  school  arose,  named 
from  its  founder.  This  school,  as  a modified  form  of 
the  Yamato,  still  exists.  About  a century  after  the  re- 
vival of  Italian  art  a new  impulse  was  given  to  Jap- 
anese painting  by  a priest  from  China,  Josetsu,  who 
came  to  Japan  and  established  a monastic  school.  His 
three  pupils  were  the  founders  of  schools  of  painting. 
Chodensu,  another  Buddhist  priest,  divides  with  Josetsu 
the  honor  of  reviving  Japanese  art.  As  a painter  of 
Buddhist  pictures  he  is  said  to  be  unequaled.  Pro- 
foundly religious,  of  childlike  simplicity,  and  passion- 


*Yamato=ancient  name  for  Japan,  and  e=picture. 


JAPAN  : COrXTRY,  court,  people. 


266 

ately  devoted  to  his  art,  lie  reminds  us  of  his  Italian 
contemporary,  Michael  Angelo.  After  becoming  known 
at  court,  the  Shogun  asked  him  what  he  wished.  He 
replied:  “For  money  and  rank  I have  no  need;  one 
change  of  raiment  and  a pot  of  rice  suffice  for  my  daily 
wants.”  Some  of  his  pictures  still  exist.  One  of  them 
in  copy  the  writer  has  seen,  made  about  1400  A.D.  It 
is  an  immense  painting  thirty-nine  feet  long  by  twenty- 
six  feet  wide,  and  represents  the  death  of  Buddha. 

Of  the  three  famous  disciples  of  Josetsu,  two  of  them 
were  Buddhist  priests,  which  reminds  us  again  of  the 
parallel  fact  in  the  Italian  Renaissance  that  religion 
stimulated  the  great  masters.  The  first  one,  Sess/ia , 
went  to  China  hoping  to  drink  in  inspiration  from  the 
masters  there,  but  was  so  disappointed  as  to  cry  out: 
“The  mountains,  rivers,  grass,  and  trees  shall  be  my 
masters!”  He  showed  such  remarkable  talent  that  the 
Emperor  of  China  gave  him  an  order  to  paint  a picture 
upon  the  palace  wall.  His  best  pictures  are  land- 
scapes, the  outlines  being  bold,  color  tinting  sparse, 
lie  also  painted  portraits,  dragons,  tigers,  foliage,  and, 
though  professing  to  follow  nature,  was  never  able  to 
throw  off  Chinese  models. 

fihiibu , another  monk,  was  equally  skillful  in  land- 
scape, figures,  birds,  and  flowers.  His  outlines  were 
drawn  in  ink  with  a slight  dash  of  color. 

Kano , the  founder  of  the  third  school  of  painting, 
was  born  of  noble  family  the  same  year  as  Angelo,  and, 
like  him,  lived  to  the  great  age  of  eighty-four.  Kano 
rambled  through  the  land  with  empty  purse,  one  change 
of  garment  and  his  painting  implements,  sketching 
whatever  pleased  him  and  paying  for  his  food  with  the 
creation  of  his  brush.  Simple,  unambitious,  and  poor, 
he  would  never  flatter  a lord  to  win  his  patronage. 


PAINTING. 


267 


After  his  marriage,  his  wife,  who  was  also  a painter, 
worked  with  him.  Ilis  paintings  were  distinguished  for 
simplicity,  freedom,  and  rapidity,  showing  force  and 
suggestiveness  without  effort.  Though  handicapped 
by  Chinese  artificialities,  originality  flashed  forth  from 
every  picture,  whether  it  were  a mountain  pass,  a path- 
way to  a cottage,  or  a dragon.  From  about  1400  to 
1700  this  Kano  school,  together  with  the  older  Tosa 
school,  occupied  the  chief  place  in  the  art  culture  of  the 
country.  The  Tosa  school  of  painters  hovered  around 
the  capital  and  drew  scenes  pleasing  to  court  circles, 
but  the  Kano  school  cultivated  deities  and  Chinese 
sages,  landscapes,  birds,  and  flowers.  In  this  period 
the  great  castles  of  the  country  had  their  gilded  walls 
embellished  with  enormous  pictures.  Passing  over 
several  names' of  merit,  and  many  more  that  swell  the 
list  but  add  nothing  to  genuine  art,  we  come  to  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  a new  fountain  of  gen- 
ius opens.  It  is  a fountain  that  flows  directly  from  na- 
ture, and  not  from  the  overworked  models  of  Chinese 
art.  Okiyo  had  the  boldness  to  believe  that  something 
better  might  be  learned  from  nature  thairfrom  the  arti- 
ficial and  conventional  teachers  who  had  gone  before. 
His  school,  named  Okiyo*  while  not  entirely  free  from 
the  faults  of  the  old  schools,  introduced  more  perspec- 
tive, and  showed  delicacy  and  freedom,  especially  in 
the  treatment  of  landscapes.  Their  paintings  are  much 
sought  after.  In  the  latter  part  of  that  century  a great 
effort  was  made  by  many  painters  to  restore  the  Chi- 
nese style  and  to  improve  it. 

But  about  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  a 
new  head  and  leader  of  the  Okiyo  school  appeared, 


*Also  Shiden-e. 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


268 

making  it  still  more  natural,  real,  and  popular.  This 
was  Ilohusai , whose  career  was  long  and  remarkable, 
lie  was  born  in  1760,  and  died  in  1849.  Born  of  the  com- 
mon people,  he  and  his  school  brought  the  art  of  paint- 
ing from  the  castles  of  Daimyos  and  mansions  of  nobles 
down,  to  the  masses.  The  first  forty-five  years  of  his 
life  were  spent  in  obscurity,  before  he  was  induced  to 
establish  himself  in  the  capital,  Yedo,  as  an  industrial 
artist  and  teacher  of  drawing.  Ilis  characteristic  as  a 
painter  was  life  with  its  vigor  and  manifestations — “al- 
ways and  everywhere  life.”  While  there  was  nothing 
in  his  pictures  to  shock  the  most  aesthetic,  no  lack  of 
dignity  in  his  sages  and  saints,  no  lack  of  might  and 
fierceness  in  his  warriors,  all  his  paintings  and  sketches 
were  brightened  by  flashes  of  native  humor  and  touches 
of  actual  life.  Ilis  real  strength,  indeed,  lay  in  the  pop- 
ular sketches  of  the  everyday  life  of  the  people,  which 
were  recognized  and  enjoyed  by  everybody.  Their  cer- 
emonies and  amusements,  historical  episodes,  homely 
jokes  and  characters  which  the  unlearned  could  under- 
stand and  enjoy,  the  household  pet,  a favorite  flower, 
any  one  of  theThousand  objects  and  scenes  of  everyday 
life,  found  graceful  reproduction  by  the  magic  touch  of 
his  pencil.  The  result  was  that  this  realistic  master 
(realist  of  everyday  life  and  humor,  but  not  of  vulgari- 
ty and  indecency)  was  immensely  popular.  Pupils 
flocked  to  his  feet,  and  his  woodcuts  attracted  imme- 
diate attention  by  their  novelty  and  beauty.  To  meet 
the  demand  he  began  the  publication  of  a series  of  en- 
gravings, entitled  “ Ten  Thousand  Sketches.”  Besides 
these,  book  after  book  appeared  at  intervals,  each  pic- 
ture or  sketch  bearing  the  stamp  of  his  easy  touch  and 
clear  insight  into  life.  One  of  his  books  contained  a 
hundred  views  of  the  sacred  and  far-famed  Mount  Fuji. 


PAINTING. 


269 


He  worked  right  on  with  verve  and  ease  until  he  was 
nearly  eighty.  At  the  age  of  seventy-five  years  he  wrote 
of  himself:  “It  was  at  the  age  of  seventy-three  that  I 
came  near  to  a comprehension  of  the  true  form  and  na- 
ture of  birds,  of  fishes,  of  plants,  etc.,  and  I am  dissat- 
isfied with  all  I produced  prior  to  the  age  of  seventy.” 
Though  dying  at  the  great  age  of  eighty-nine,  and  after 
such  a remarkable  career,  he  never  received  any  reward 
or  word  of  recognition  from  those  in  high  station,  while 
many  artists  of  gentle  birth,  but  without  talent,  received 
for  their  lifeless  pencilings  both  rank  and  pension.  Ho- 
kusai did  more  to  make  Japanese  art  immortal  than  any 
other  of  the  great  names  that  might  be  named.  Among 
his  many  contemporaries  and  successors  there  is  one 
named  Kyosai , who,  like  his  master,  excelled  in  every- 
thing, particularly  in  caricature.  His  boldness  in  pic- 
torial sarcasm  brought  down  the  wrath  of  the  rulers 
upon  his  head,  and  got  him  into  prison,  but  nothing 
could  smother  the  fire  of  his  genius.  He  drew  with 
amazing  vigor,  and  not  without  taste  and  delicacy  of 
feeling.  Most  of  his  pictures  are  colored  and  of  small 
size.  As  examples,  Regamey  describes  two:  “The  first 
represents  a serpent  that  has  just  seized  a sparrow. 
Though  so  simple,  every  stroke  of  the  brush  tells:  the 
veiled  eye,  half-opening  beak,  the  body  pulled  together 
and  palpitating  under  the  serpent’s  tooth,  the  plucked- 
out  feathers  flying  away.  This  is  in  the  midst  of  plants, 
among  pink  flowerets,  where  glide  tiny  green  spiders. 
Which  to  admire  most,  the  perfection  of  the  execution 
or  the  intense  emotion  suggested  by  the  picture,  one 
cannot  say.  The  second  scene  is  a comedy:,  a sparrow, 
flurried  and  stifled  with  surprise  at  the  sight  of  a mole 
coming  out  of  the  ground  at  his  feet;  startled,  and  with 
wings  wide  apart,  it  makes  the  most  expressive  and  comic 


270 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


grimaces.”  (See  “Japan  in  Art  and  Art  Industries,”  p. 
44.) 

The  present  condition  of  Japanese  painting  is  said  to 
be  that  of  decline.  As  in  so  many  other  things,  Japa- 
nese painters  hardly  know  where  they  are.  In  1876  the 
government  established  a school  of  painting  and  draw- 
ing in  foreign  style,  but  after  about  six  years  dropped 
it.  To-day  there  are  some  societies  in  the  capital  that 
aim  to  cultivate  painting  in  oil,  after  the  manner  of  the 
Western  schools;  but,  with  a very  few  exceptions, 
nothing  meritorious  has  yet  been  achieved.  We  are 
confident,  however,  of  better  things  for  them  in  the  fu- 
ture. It  takes  time  to  change  the  modes  and  forms  of  a 
nation’s  art. 

IV.  Pottery^  Wares. 

Japanese  pottery  had  it's  beginning  in  mercy.  When 
the  Emperor  Suinin’s  queen  died,  A.D.  3,  one  of  his 
courtiers  suggested  that  clay  images  be  substituted  for 
the  human  victims  usually  buried  alive  around  the  grave 
of  one  of  the  imperial  family.  It  was  done,  but  those 
clay  figures  were  of  the  simplest  unglazed  workman- 
ship. The  invention  of  pottery  and  the  use  of  the  wheel 
are  ascribed  by  tradition  to  a Buddhist  priest,  Gyogi, 
renowned  in  legend  alike  for  his  philanthropy  and  me- 
chanical genius.  Descended  from  the  royal  family  of 
Korea,  he  came  over  to  Japan  about  750  A.D.  Before 
this,  unglazed  wares  were  made  for  storing  rice  seed 
and  cooking,  only  a few  vessels  of  a better  finish  for 
the  use  of  the  Emperor  in  certain  religious  ceremonies 
being  required.  Not  till  the  first  part  of  the  thirteenth 
century  was  there  much  demand  for  a better  kind  of 
pottery.  This  new  impulse  was  caused  by  the  intro- 
duction of  the  tea  leaf  and  tea  drinking  from  China  by 
the  Buddhist  priest,  Yeisai.  Bringing  a jar  of  tea  seed 


POTTERY  WARES. 


271 


and  a book  of  directions,  the  cultivation  of  tea  spread 
rapidly.  The  new  beverage  became  very  popular  with 
the  upper  classes,  and  accordingly  there  sprang  up  a 
demand  for  more  artistic  jars  and  for  cups  suited  to 
“good  form”  for  the  new  fashionable  drink.  To  meet 
this  demand  of  fashionable  people  a Japanese  potter 
went  to  China,  studied  the  modes  of  making  good  pot- 
tery there,  returned  the  fifth  year  to  Seto,  his  native 
village,  set  up  kilns,  and  made  a new  ware  quite  supe- 
rior to  anything  hitherto  made  in  the  country.  These 
new  potteries  at  Seto  won  such  prestige  over  all  others 
that  very  soon  Setomono  (mono  = article)  was  the  name 
applied  to  all  kinds  of  pottery  ware,  just  as  “China” 
is  with  us. 

It  was  just  twelve  years  before  the  discovery  of  Amer- 
ica, in  the  reign  of  one  of  the  luxuriant  Ashikaga  dy- 
nasty, that  a second  impulse  was  given  to  pottery  arts. 
This  was  the  establishment  of  the  tea  ceremonial  under 
the  distinguished  patronage  of  the  Regent,  who  retired 
from  the  affairs  of  state  to  his  great  palace  at  Kioto. 
This  tea  ceremonial,  with  its  four  cardinal  principles  of 
hospitality,  politeness,  cleanliness,  and  tranquillity,  and 
its  numerous  observances  and  rules,  had  a wonderful  in- 
fluence in  the  artistic  improvement  of  Setomono  styles. 
Professors  and  masters  of  this  gentle  philosophy  wrote 
books  upon  the  tea  ceremony,  and  it  got  to  be  all  the 
fashion  among  the  gentry  and  nobles,  and  increased  the 
demand  for  exquisite  qualities  of  tea  pots,  cups,  ewers, 
and  the  like.  The  many  potteries  naturally  vied  with 
each  other  in  meeting  the  taste  of  the  dilettantes  at  Ki- 
oto and  Kamakura  capitals.  Besides,  it  was  the  wont 
of  the  fastidious  and  luxuriant  Regent  to  hold  reunions 
of  noblemen  and  literati  in  his  palace,  to  whom  he  sub- 
mitted for  their  admiration  or  criticism  every  new  and 


272 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


elegant  addition  to  his  collection  of  Setomono  and  of 
lacquer  ware  as  well.  Of  course  every  nobleman  and 
courtier  must  follow  the  example  of  the  palace  by 
keeping  a hue  set  of  tea  service.  Up  to  this  time  the 
ware  made  in  Japan  was  coarse  pottery  and  faience,  but 
not  porcelain.  So,  to  meet  this  new  demand  in  cultured 
society  for  something  more  artistic,  a potter  went  to 
China  to  get  the  secret  of  making  porcelain.  He  got.it, 
but  he  did  not  get  another  secret  longed  for:  the  proc- 
ess of  decorating  under  the  glaze  and  enameling  over  it. 
So  that  we  come  to  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury before  the  production  of  Setomono  of  a strictly 
Japanese  manufacture  is  worthy  of  record  in  the  history 
of  art.  About  1570  a new  era  in  the  art  of  pottery 
dawned.  It  was  reserved  to  Hideyoshi  the  Great  to  give 
his  powerful  patronage  to  the  progress  of  this  art. 
Born  of  low  parentage,  but  now  a mighty  ruler,  he 
wished  to  prove  to  his  blue-blooded  nobles,  who  de- 
spised his  low  origin,  that  he  was  not  only  a warrior 
and  administrator  of  affairs,  but  also  a master  of  their 
own  exquisitely  refined  tea  ceremonial,  the  climax  of  all 
their  fashion  and  etiquette;  doubtless,  too,  he  wished  by 
his  example  to  draw  away  the  minds  of  the  warlike  Dai- 
myos  and  generals,  whose  “souls  were  in  their  swords,” 
to  softer,  gentler  pursuits.  He  visited  in  person  some 
of  the  chief  potteries,  rewarded  excellence  with  money 
or  titles  of  honor,  and  even  allowed  in  some  districts 
presents  of  stoneware  and  porcelain  in  lieu  of  revenue 
and  of  military  service.  The  consequence  was  in- 
creased enterprise  among  the  potteries  throughout  the 
country.  But  being  disappointed  in  the  achievements 
of  the  native  artists,  he  ordered  his  commanding  gener- 
als in  Korea  to  send  back  skillful  Korean  potters;  hence 
about  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  nearly  all  the 


POTTERY  WARES. 


273 


chief  potteries  in  Japan  were  either  established  or  im- 
proved by  the  aid  of  the  Korean  experts  brought  over 
as  captives  from  the  war.  In  brief,  then,  Japan’s  ceram- 
ic art  had  its  real  beginning  about  1600,  under  instruc- 
tion of  Korean  captives,  and  what  went  before  was  only 
preparatory. 

We  may  divide  the  ceramic  wares  of  Japan  into 
three  kinds: 

(1)  The  coarse  earthenware  of  clay,  the  paste  of  which 
is  not  so  carefully  kneaded  and  sifted,  for  thick,  heavy 
vessels,  either  glazed  or  unglazed,  such  as  we  use  in 
kitchen,  pantry,  dairy,  flower  garden,  and  so  on.  It  is 
characteristic  of  all  rude  civilizations,  being  made  by 
hand  without  the  wheel  or  molded  in  willow  baskets 
— the  wheel  is  a later  invention. 

(2)  Faience,  a term  probably  equal  to  our  term  China 
ware.  The  paste  is  made  of  kaolin  clay , is  crushed 
and  pulverized,  and  treated  with  one  process  after  an- 
other in  its  preparation.  The  glaze  is  composed  of  va- 
rious metals  mixed  with  lye.  Faience  may  be  applied, 
then,  to  our  ordinary  table  and  chamber  ware,  as  well  as 
to  the  more  artistic  pieces  of  decorated  vases,  pitchers, 
and  urns  in  our  drawing-rooms. 

(3)  Porcelain  is  made  chiefly  of  silica,  quartz,  or  pul- 
verized granite,  and  is  always  distinguished  by  the 
thinness  and  translucency  of  the  piece.  This  ware 
usually  yields  a metallic  ring  to  the  snap  of  the  fin- 
ger. The  glaze  is  composed  of  silica,  lye,  and  various 
metals. 

The  firings,  first  of  the  molded  piece,  which  is  then 
called  biscuit  and  which  is  porous  and  easily  cut  with 
a sharp  tool,  and  the  subsequent  firings  to  fix  the  glaze 
and  the  various  decorative  designs,  some  under  and 
some  above  the  glaze,  need  not  detain  us  here.  In  the 
18 


JAPAN : COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


274 

management  of  the  glazes  the  Chinese  were  without 
peers,  hut  finally  the  Japanese  acquired  the  knowledge 
of  preparing  both  transparent  and  variegated  glazes. 

The  process  of  decorating  calls  for  a few  words. 
Though  slow  in  getting  into  all  the  intricacies  of  the 
process,  Japanese  artists  at  last  mastered  the  art  of  pot- 
tery decoration  in  all  its  branches.  For  a long  time  the 
Chinese  blue,  so  solid  and  lustrous  under  the  glaze,  could 
not  be  reproduced  in  Japan.  For  a long  time,  too,  the 
handling  of  polychromes  and  the  shading  of  tints  and 
colors  as  when  chocolate  brown  passes  into  amber,  or 
black  is  relieved  with  clouds  and  streaks  of  gray,  was 
an  unsolved  problem,  but  it  was  mastered.  By  certain 
combinations  they  learned  how  to  produce  a marbled 
surface  in  patches,  imitating  tortoise  shell,  and  a green, 
dully  speckled  surface  like  a Japanese  pear.  Various 
designs  and  figures  were  applied  under  the  glaze, 
arabesque,  Vitruvian  curves  and  bands,  vines,  flow- 
ers, birds  and  animals,  in  black,  gold,  silver,  coral  red, 
etc.  Above  the  glaze,  with  their  usual  simplicity  of 
means  in  achieving  manifold  and  marvelous  results, 
they  were  likewise  masters  of  the  three  chief  methods 
of  decoration:  (a)  By  applying  with  the  artistes  brush 
pigments  in  paste,  softed  with  water  or  oil,  and  fash- 
ioned according  to  the  desired  design,  sometimes  pate 
snr  pate  (paste  upon  paste),  so  as  to  get  the  design  in 
low  relief;  (b)  with  enameling  of  ground  glass  and  other 
material  made  into  a paste  and  filling  up  the  required 
design;  ( c ) with  jewels  set  into  the  enameling  while  the 
paste  is  moist. 

Of  the  more  than  forty  styles  of  ware  named  and  de- 
scribed by  Capt.  Brinkley,  editor  of  the  Japan  Mail , 
there  is  space  here  for  only  four  or  five  of  the  more 
famous  ones. 


POTTERY  WARES. 


275 


Hizen  Ware. — The  Hizen  ware  is,  he  thinks,  the  most 
important,  and  includes  three  varieties  made  in  that 
province.  First,  an  enameled  porcelain  of  old  Japan, 
specimens  of  which  are  in  the  earlier  European  muse- 
ums, and  famous  in  the  seventeenth  century  for  its  ex- 
cellent blue  under  the  glaze  and  colored  enamel  over 
the  glaze.  This  ware  was  exported  to  Europe  by  the 
Dutch  trading  at  Nagasaki.  Secondly,  another  variety 
was  noted  for  the  milk  whiteness  and  softness  of  the 
glaze,  the  blue  under  the  glaze,  and  the  delicate  decora- 
tion. This  is  said  to  be  the  finest  jeweled  porcelain  in 
Japan.  A third  style  was  distinguished  for  its  blue  or 
pure  white  under  the  glaze,  and  its  exquisite  decora- 
tions incised  and  in  relief. 

Kioto  Ware. — Kioto  became  the  center  of  the  arts,  and 
hence  many  great  potteries  with  hundreds  of  workmen 
and  scores  of  connoisseurs  eventually  settled  there.  A 
few  of  the  principal  ones  made  porcelain,  but  for  the 
most  part  the  Kioto  ware  was  faience.  For  instance, 
the  Raku  faience,  so  popular  among  the  tea  clubs,  was 
made  there;  Raku,  being  the  seal  conferred  upon  a fa- 
mous potter  by  Hideyoshi  the  Great,  continued  to  be 
used  as  the  stamp  of  that  ware  for  thirteen  generations. 
Another  ceramist  of  Kioto  produced  many  beautiful 
pieces  of  jeweled  faience,  of  close  hard  paste,  yellowish 
or  brownish  white  glaze,  finely  crackled  and  delicately 
decorated  in  red,  green,  gold,  and  silver  designs.  Of  the 
Kioto  porcelains,  one  was  distinguished  for  the  variety 
of  its  glaze,  coral  red,  spotted  green,  and  the  tasteful 
blending  of  colors  as  well  as  for  the  finely  executed 
decorations  in  gold. 

/Satsuma  Ware. — “Old  Satsuma”  was  long  the  craze 
of  European  collectors,  but  nine  hundred  and  ninetv- 
nine  pieces  out  of  every  thousand  so  named  are  simply 


270 


JAPAN  I COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


skillful  forgeries.  In  1598  the  lord  of  Satsuma  settled 
near  him  seventeen  Korean  potters,  who  have  increased 
to  five  hundred  families,  and  still  carry  on  the  same  art. 
The  reason  why  old  Satsuma  is  so  rare  is  that  it  was 
never  produced  for  the  general  market,  but  only  for 
the  great  lord  of  Satsuma  and  his  friends.  Old  Satsuma 
was  genuine  enameled  faience,  noted  for  its  great 
purity  and  fine  crackle,  the  ground  being  reddish  brown 
or  cream,  the  paste  being  as  close  as  ivory,  and  the 
decoration  over  the  glaze  chaste  rather  than  rich;  later, 
however,  a richer  gilding  and  enameling  with  brilliant 
colors  were  introduced.  A pottery  set  up  in  Satsuma 
about  the  beginning  of  this  century  has  acquired  a 
great  reputation  for  the  making  of  teapots,  cups  and 
saucers,  boAvls,  and  the  like,  while  elsewhere  the  pro- 
duction is  chiefly  vases  and  urns. 

Kaga  Ware  (Kutani  Porcelain). — From  the  Kutani 
village,  planted  on  a high  mountain  in  the  province  of 
Kaga,  comes  one  variety  of  porcelain  with  enamel  of 
great  brilliancy  and  beauty.  In  some  cases  large  por- 
tions of  surface  are  completely  covered  with  enamel  in 
green  and  yellow.  In  another  variety,  upon  a back- 
ground of  russet  red,  silver  decoration  is  freely  used. 
Later  styles  tend  toward  the  glitter  of  gilding  and  red 
coloring,  which  the  Japanese  do  not  much  admire;  but 
they  make  tea,  coffee,  dinner,  and  dessert  services  pro- 
fusely decorated  in  red  and  gold  to  meet  the  taste  of 
foreign  buyers. 

Owari  Ware  (Seto). — The  village  of  Seto  will  ever  be 
memorable  in  the  history  of  ceramics,  where  was  manu- 
factured the  first  faience  worthy  of  mention  in  indus- 
trial art.  Here  were  made  the  little  tea  jars  and  cups 
of  the  tea  clubs  in  the  thirteenth  century.  Having  be- 
come headquarters  for  the  tea  ceremonial  vessels,  it 


POTTERY  WARES. 


277 


came  to  pass  that  many  of  their  tiny  wares  deserved 
high  admiration,  the  execution  being  perfect,  the  ma- 
hogany, russet  brown,  amber,  and  buff  glazes  showing 
wonderful  luster  and  richness.  At  present  Seto  is  the 
chief  place  in  Japan  for  porcelain.  Nowadays,  how- 
ever, many  of  the  porcelains  spoken  of  as  Owari 
ware  are  decorated  by  a gild  of  artists  living  in  Yoko- 
hama and  Tokyo.  The  designs,  generally  pictorial, 
are  put  on  with  a brush  in  cheap  paste,  the  little  coffee 
cups  being  decorated  with  tiny  birds,  flowers,  Ashes, 
insects,  or  bits  of  bamboo  branches;  and  the  monster 
vases  six  feet  high  in  blue,  white,  and  red.  All  this 
wholesale  production  is  for  the  market  in  America  and 
Europe. 

Eggshell  Porcelain. — Several  villages  in  Mino  Prov- 
ince made  fine  porcelains  in  earlier  periods.  The  egg- 
shell porcelain,  of  wonderful  delicacy,  was  produced, 
which,  so  far  as  beauty  and  technique  are  concerned, 
will  bear  comparison  with  China’s  best.  The  manu- 
facture, confined  to  tiny  tea  bowls  or  wine  cups  invari- 
ably plain  on  the  inner  surface,  is  decorated  on  the  out- 
side with  designs  of  the  utmost  simplicity,  illustrating 
the  charming  combination  of  grace  and  boldness  for 
which  Japanese  art  is  remarkable.  An  example  of  this 
exquisite  decoration  is  given  by  Brinkley:  “There  is 
an  outline  sketch  of  the  peerless  Mount  Fuji,  its  blue 
dome  touched  by  golden  clouds  among  which  float  a 
flock  of  wild  swans,  or,  perchance,  a single  branch  of 
plum  blossom  peeping  through  mists  that  hide  a forest 
of  flowers.”  Another  style  of  eggshell  porcelain,  known 
as  Tajima  ware,  is  still  more  remarkable  than  the  gos- 
samer eggshell  just  mentioned.  “One  is  inclined  to 
doubt,”  says  Capt.  Brinkley,  “whether  the  celebrated 
Vincennes  flowers  that  deceived  King  Louis  himself 


278 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


can  have  been  more  marvelously  molded  than  some 
specimens  of  the  Tajima  porcelains.  As  was  said  of 
painting,  so  it  has  been  feared  that  the  ceramic  art  of 
Japan  has  entered  upon  a decline,  that  the  wholesale 
production  of  cheap  but  gaudily  decorated  faience  and 
porcelain  for  the  foreign  market,  and  the  loss  of  indi- 
vidual patronage  of  the  old  princes  and  lords  for  whose 
eye  the  best  artists  of  old  achieved  their  highest  results 
by  years  of  quiet,  persevering  work,  have  cut  the  nerve 
of  genius  and  ambition.”  In  this  fear  we  do  not  share. 
The  conditions  being  changed  requires  time  for  adjust- 
ment, but  in  due  time  this  art  will  bloom  again. 

V.  Landscape  Gardening. 

In  landscape  gardening  and  making  of  bouquets  the 
Japanese  probably  excel  any  other  nation.  It  is  really 
a fine  art.  One  thing  that  strikes  the  foreigner  when 
he  walks  into  a flower  garden  is  the  total  absence  or  the 
paucity  of  the  flowers,  and  the  many  evergreens  to  be 
seen  everyAvhere.  This  is  because  the  purpose  of  every 
garden  is  to  reproduce  on  a small  scale  some  famous 
natural  scene  of  Japan,  some  mountain  like  sacred  Fuji 
and  its  surroundings,  some  island  or  lake  scene.  As 
Fuji  has  lakes  and  streams  not  far  from  its  base,  this  be- 
comes the  type  of  most  of  their  flower  gardens.  The 
writers  upon  landscape  gardening  divide  off  into  schools, 
and  have  considerable  discussion  upon  the  principles 
and  rules  for  laying  off  the  garden.  Copying  a natural 
scene,  the  characteristic  is  variety.  They  are  planned 
also  to  hide  a part  as  well  as  to  reveal  a part  of  the 
scene,  so  that  when  one  enters  he  cannot  take  in  the 
whole,  but  as  he  walks  a surprise  greets  him  at  every 
turn.  The  little  Fuji,  the  clumps  of  trees  and  shrubs, 
the  bed  of  the  river,  or  the  little  brook  with  rustic 


LANDSCAPE  GARDENING. 


279 


bridge,  the  little  lake,  and  the  pebbled  walks  all  show 
the  greatest  variety.  An  American  flower  garden  or 
park  would  naturally  appear  monotonous  to  the  Japa- 
nese. The  ground  is  too  flat  and  the  plan  is  too  uniform 
and  regular,  and  so  too  much  of  it  comes  under  the  eye 
at  one  time.  The  Japanese  are  exceedingly  skillful  in 
giving  a mere  glimpse  of  a scene,  here  and  there,  excit- 
ing suggestion  and  imagination  more  than  our  American 
parks  or  gardens  do.  They  are  likewise  skillful  in  the 
dwarfing  of  trees.  For  instance,  you  may  see  a pine 
sixty  years  old  and  perfect  in  every  part,  but  not  more 
than  one  foot  high.  Another  principle  in  landscape 
gardening  is  to  symbolize  certain  abstract  ideas,  such  as 
peace,  old  age,  prosperity,  etc.  A famous  master  of  the 
flower  art,  as  well  as  of  etiquette,  wrote  much  on  the 
subject  and  taught  at  the  capital  to  many  learners  his 
principles  and  rules.  It  is  a kind  of  philosojjhy.  With 
the  Japanese,  branches  with  leaves  and  buds  are  treated 
as  flowers.  There  are  two  or  three  principles  differen- 
tiating the  flower  art  of  the  Japanese  from  ours:  (1) 
Color  and  combinations  of  color  are  not  so  important  in 
Japanese  eyes  as  with  us;  (2)  the  linear  arrangement  of 
the  bouquet  rather  than  the  circular  cluster;  (3)  the  sym- 
bolic meaning  of  the  flower  counts  for  much;  (4)  admi- 
ration of  certain  flowers  founded  upon  tradition  as  to 
their  being  lucky  or  unlucky.  The  study  of  the  subject 
of  bouquet  making  and  landscape  gardening  will  soon 
convince  the  foreigner  that  it  is  a difficult  but  graceful 
accomplishment,  and  that  the  Japanese  could  teach  us 
some  good  lessons. 


PART  JIT. 


CHAPTER  I 

JAPAN  IN  MODERN  HI  ST  OR  Y {1854-1900). 

Preparations  for  the  Great  Change  from  Old 
to  New  Japan. 

As  seen  on  a previous  page,  the  Portuguese  and  Span- 
iards were  driven  away  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
the  English  voluntarily  abandoned  their  trade,  and  the 
Dutch  alone  kept  their  trading  post  for  over  two  hun- 
dred years,  but  it  was  by  submitting  to  be  treated  more 
like  prisoners  than  citizens  of  a free  Christian  nation. 

Early  in  the  present  century  foreign  nations  made  re- 
peated attempts  to  open  trading  relations  with  the  coun- 
try so  long  shut  within  itself.  The  Russians  did  not 
cease  their  vain  attempts  till  1811;  the  English  too  sent 
a ship  in  1818,  and  again  in  1849;  but  anxious  as  they 
were  to  extend  their  commerce  from  India  and  China, 
they  failed  to  induce  Japan’s  rulers  to  open  trade  with 
them. 

It  was  fear  of  foreign  nations  that  led  Iyeyasu  and 
his  successors  to  shut  up  their  country  to  itself,  and  the 
reason  why  they  did  not  fear  the  Dutch  and  made  a 
slight  exception  in  their  favor  was  because  they  could 
insult  them  and  treat  them  like  captives. 

Murray  in  his  work  on  Japan  says:  “It  is  now  plain 
that  this  seclusion  was  a mistake.  It  would  have  been 
of  inestimable  value  to  this  enterprising  people  to  have 
kept  in  the  race  for  improvement  with  the  other  nations 
of  the  world.”  On  the  contrary,  we  believe  that  shut- 
(280) 


PREPARING  FOR  A CHANGE. 


281 


ting  up  the  country  against  foreign  nations  was  at  that 
time  wise;  and  that  if  things  had  gone  on  as  they  were 
going,  Japan  would*  certainly  have  become  a Roman 
Catholic  country,  and  probably  fallen  under  foreign 
rule.  Nor  can  we  find  it  in  our  hearts  to  condemn  the 
Japanese  for  their  treatment  of  the  Dutch.  The  Dutch 
were  there  solely  for  gain,  and  not  to  promote  civiliza- 
tion or  Christianity  in  any  sense.  The  only  course  open 
by  which  to  avoid  the  danger  of  entangling  foreign  al- 
liances was  to  limit  the  trading  post  to  a dozen  Dutch- 
men in  one  port  only,  shutting  them  up  in  the  little 
island  at  Nagasaki  and  allowing  a few  ships  to  come 
yearly  to.  sell  their  cargoes  under  the  most  rigid  regula- 
tions. If  the  Dutch,  simply  for  gain,  were  willing  to 
submit  to  such  indignities,  we  cannot  blame  the  Jap- 
anese much  for  imposing  it  upon  them  to  protect,  as 
they  believed,  themselves. 

At  any  rate,  it  was  never  a European  nation  that  suc- 
ceeded in  reopening  the  long-barred  gates  of  Japan  to 
Western  trade  and  light.  This  achievement  was  re- 
served to  the  youngest  of  the  Western  nations,  our  own 
American  Republic. 

I.  The  Opening  of  the  Country  (1854)  by  Perry, 
the  American. 

The  man  who,  under  God’s  providence  induced  Japan 
to  change  her  long  and  rigid  policy  of  exclusion  and  to 
open  her  ports  to  foreign  ships,  was  the  brave,  accom- 
plished, and  Christian  commodore  of  the  United  States 
Navy,  Mathew  Galbraith  Perry. 

When  Andrew  Jackson  set  up  his  strong  foreign  pol- 
icy, in  1832,  he' commissioned  Edward  Roberts,  Esq.,  to 
present  to  the  Emperor  of  Japan  a letter  respecting 
trade,  but  he  died  before  reaching  Japan.  After  the 


282 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


United  States  came  into  possession  of  California  (1848) 
our  leaders  naturally  looked  across  the  Pacific  Ocean 
and  began  to  talk  about  trade  with  China  and  other 
Asiatic  countries.  It  was  plain  that  the  Pacific  Ocean 
would  be  a great  highway  of  ships  sailing  from  America 
to  the  far  East.  Now  Japan  lay  right  along  that  great 
highway  to  China,  and,  steam  having  been  applied  to 
navigation,  the  coal  supply  for  so  long  a voyage  was  the 
important  question.  A ship  could  not  carry  coal  enough 
from  San  Francisco  to  China  and  return;  it  was  indis- 
pensable to  our  commerce  with  China,  Korea,  and  Siam 
that  we  should  have  access  to  coaling  stations  in  Japan. 
Besides  this  increasing  trade  with  China,  the  Americans 
began  sending  yearly  many  whaling  vessels  into  the 
seas  north  of  Japan.  About  ten  million  dollars  were 
invested  and  ten  thousand  seamen  were  engaged  year- 
ly in  the  whale  fisheries  just  north  of  Japan,  but  not 
a friendly  harbor  was  open  on  all  those  coasts.  This 
worked  not  merely  inconvenience,  but  irreparable  loss 
of  property  and  life.  It  was  necessary,  therefore,  that 
America  and  Japan  should  be  friendly  with  each  other, 
that  the  latter  should  be  open  to  our  ships  for  coal, 
and  as  a refuge  for  our  shipwrecked  whalers.  • 

Again,  the  very  currents  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  its 
winds  and  storms,  showed  plainly  that  America  and 
Japan  should  have  friendship  and  trade  with  each  other. 
For  instance,  our  American  whalers  were  not  infre- 
quently driven  upon  the  northern  shores  as  wrecks  of 
the  storm;  and  thus  at  the  mercy  of  the  natives,  instead 
of  receiving  aid  and  protection,  were  seized  as  enemies 
and  imprisoned.  On  the  other  hand,  every  few  years 
Japanese  junks,  blown  out  to  sea,  were  drifted  by  the 
Black  Current  on  to  our  Pacific  Coast.  In  1831  such  a 
junk,  with  several  Japanese  still  alive,  was  drifted  ashore 


OPENING  OF  THE  COUNTRY  BY  AMERICA. 


283 


near  the  mouth  of  Columbia  River.  A vessel,  named 
the  “Morrison,”  was  fitted  out  in  this  country  to  carry 
the  unfortunates  back  to  their  native  land.  But  when 
(1837)  the  vessel  reached  Yedo  Bay,  and  the  Japanese 
officials  came  on  board  and  found  she  was  unarmed, 
they  refused  to  allow  the  unfortunates  to  come  upon 
their  own  native  shores,  and  the  next  day  actually  fired 
upon  the  defenseless  ship,  notwithstanding  its  mission 
of  humanity! 

But  the  American  ship  Preble  (1849)  went  to  Ja- 
pan upon  a different  errand.  Our  government  in  Wash- 
ington, having  learned  that  seventeen  American  seamen 
had  been  imprisoned  by  the  Japanese  rulers,  sent  the 
armed  Preble  to  demand  their  release.  Although  the 
Japanese  with  junks  tried  to  prevent  it,  she  proudly 
steamed  into  Nagasaki  harbor,  and  although  cannons 
from  the  heights  above  were  trained  upon  the  ship,  the 
fearless  commander  demanded  the  release  of  the  Amer- 
icans, and  when  the  Japanese  replied  in  haughty  and 
defiant  terms  he  met  them  with  the  demand  for  the 
immediate  release  of  the  prisoners  in  the  name  of  the 
United  States  Government.  In  two  days  the  Ameri- 
cans were  released. 

Hence  it  was  that  both  from  considerations  of  hu- 
manity as  well  as  the  interests  of  international  com- 
merce between  America  and  Asia,  Japan  must  be  in- 
duced to  come  forth  from  her  isolation  and  fear  into 
relations  of  friendship  and  trade  with  foreign  nations. 

For  securing  such  a change  on  the  part  of  Japan  no 
other  foreign  government  was  .in  so  favorable  a posi- 
tion as  America;  for  Japan’s  rulers  had  no  ground 
whatever  for  prejudice  against  the  Americans,  for  the 
reason  that  the  Americans  had  never  shown  anything 
but  kindness  to  Japanese  unfortunates  drifted  upon 


284 


JAl’AX : COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


our  Pacific  Coast,  had  never  joined  the  Europeans  in  a 
policy  of  conquest,  nor  had  any  Roman  Catholic  ever 
sat  in  the  Presidential  chair  at  Washington.  Presi- 
dent Fillmore  and  the  distinguished  Secretary  of  State, 
Daniel  Webster,  as  well  as  his  Secretary  of  Navy,  of 
literary  fame,  John  P.  Kennedy,  all  favored  a formal 
approach  to  Japan  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  rela- 
tions of  friendship  and  trade  between  the  two  nations. 
Accordingly,  early  in  1852,  preparations  were  begun  for 
the  sending  of  twelve  vessels  upon  such  a mission.  The 
sending  of  so  large  and  well-equipped  a fleet  was  to  se- 
cure proper  respect  and  reception  at  the  outset,  and  to 
prevent,  if  possible,  any  indignity  such  as  the  Japanese 
had  been  accustomed  to  visit  upon  the  Dutch. 

Commodore  Matthew  C.  Perry,  brother  of  the  hero 
of  Lake  Erie,  and  himself  a naval  officer  of  long  and 
honorable  career,  was  commissioned  with  full  diplo- 
matic powers  to  take  command  of  the  expedition. 
Perry  had  many  things  in  favor  of  his  success,  even 
where  all  others  had  failed.  He  was  born  of  a fami- 
ly of  seamen  and  naval  officers;  had  seen  service  while 
yet  a lad  in  the  war  of  1812  with  Great  Britain;  in  the 
Mexican  war  had  commanded  the  largest  squadron  of 
American  men- of- war  ever  known;  had  been  an  educa- 
tor and  leader  in  developing  our  navy;  was  a strict  dis- 
ciplinarian, but  just  in  all  his  demands;  was  a com- 
mander of  men,  fearless  in  danger;  a gentleman  and 
Christian  of  high  character. 

In  November,  1852,  Perry  sailed  from  Norfolk,  Va., 
in  the  flagship  Mississippi.  As  for  these  two  names, 
we  cannot  but  believe  that  they  were  and  are  prophetic. 
Norfolk  is  destined  to  be  a great  port  of  trade  through 
the  Nicaraguan  Canal  with  the  far  East;  and  the  Mis- 
sissippi River  will  yet  bear  upon  its  flowing  tide  to  the 


COMMODORE  PERRY. 


(285) 


28G 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


sea  enormous  quantities  of  steel,  cotton,  flour,  machin- 
ery for  export  to  Japan,  China,  and  Korea.  After  a 
long  voyage,  and  reorganization  of  his  squadron  in 
Chinese  waters,  he  sailed  into  the  Japanese  seas  in 
1853,  and  in  July  dropped  anchor  off  the  city  of  Uraga, 
at  the  entrance  of  Yedo  Bay. 

Through  information  from  the  Dutch  concerning  the 
sailing  of  the  Americans,  the  Japanese  were  expecting 
them;  but,  having  never  seen  steam  vessels  before,  they 
were  surprised  at  the  black  “fire  ships”  of  the  barba- 
rians when  they  saw  the  heavy  clouds  of  dark  smoke 
pouring  forth  from  the  ships’  funnels,  and  the  vessels 
plowing  the  waves  against  the  wind.  Yes,  these  mon- 
sters of  the  deep  caused  consternation  among  people 
and  rulers  alike.  From  the  decks  the  people  could  be 
seen  running  to  and  fro,  troops  gathering,  and  fortifica- 
tions being  thrown  up  at  certain  points. 

Shortly  after  the  Americans  anchored,  a fleet  of  Jap- 
anese guard  boats  hove  in  sight,  surrounded  the  Ameri- 
can squadron,  and  attempted  to  come  on  board.  This,  by 
Perry’s  orders,  was  promptly  refused.  Finally,  having 
learned  through  his  Dutch  interpreter  that  the  Vice 
Governor  was  in  one  of  the  junks,  he  was  allowed  to 
come  on  board,  but  not  to  see  the  Commodore,  a subor- 
dinate officer  being  ordered  to  hear  what  he  had  to  say. 
The  Vice  Governor’s  demand  was  that  the  foreigners 
should  not  anchor  here,  but  return  immediately  to  Nag- 
asaki, where  the  Japanese  had  always  dealt  with  the 
Dutch  and  Chinese.  For  over  two  hundred  years, 
whenever  a Dutch  ship  came  into  Nagasaki  harbor,  the 
Japanese  authorities  promptly  put  it  under  guard,  went 
on  board,  took  possession  of  cargo,  ammunition,  firearms, 
and  even  the  books  and  symbols  of  their  religion,  until 
the  day  of  the  ship’s  departure.  They  had  a thought  of 


OPENING  THE  COUNTRY  BY  PERRY.  287 

treating  the  Americans  in  the  same  fashion,  practically 
as  prisoners.  But  Commodore  Perry  opened  their  eyes 
when  he  told  them  through  his  subordinate  officer  that 
he  would  neither  go  back  to  Nagasaki,  nor  would  he  sub- 
mit to  the  indignity  of  allowing  his  vessels  to  be  sur- 
rounded by  guard  boats;  and  that  if  the  junks  did  not 
go  away  immediately,  he  would  order  them  dispersed 
by  force.  As  he  had  come  on  a mission  of  friendship 
and  peace  from  an  independent  nation,  he  would  not 
allow  himself,  his  men,  or  ships  to  be  treated  as  prison- 
ers. He  was  the  bearer  of  a letter  from  the  President  of 
the  United  States  to  the  Emperor  of  Japan,  which  could 
be  delivered  only  to  a person  of  proper  rank,  and  au- 
thorized by  the  Emperor  to  receive  it. 

Perry  showed  remarkable  knoAvledge  of  Japanese  cus- 
tom and  etiquette,  so  important  in  their  eyes,  and  a clear 
insight  into  their  character.  This  he  had  gathered  by 
long  study  of  the  books  on  Japan  written  by  the  Dutch. 
He  therefore  adopted  the  only  policy  that  had  any 
promise  of  success — namely,  to  combine  firmness  with 
courtesy  and  ceremony,  asserting  for  himself  and  gov- 
ernment a dignity  that  must  be  respected,  meanwhile 
not  demanding  anything  contrary  to  justice  and  right 
among  civilized  nations. 

Not  only  so,  but  the  third  day  brought  another  anom- 
aly. The  Americans  would  transact  no  business  on  this 
day;  it  was  their  Sunday,  and  they  were  Christians. 
The  commanders  of  Dutch  vessels  at  Nagasaki  had 
yielded  up  even  their  Bibles  and  their  prayer  books, 
everything  that  had. the  name  or  sign  of  Christ  and  his 
cross;  but  these  Americans  are  wreathing  their  ship’s 
capstan  with  the  flag,  and  a big  book  is  laid  thereon,  and 
smaller  ones  are  handed  around.  One  in  solemn  manner 
bows  his  head  in  prayer,  all  do  likewise,  and  directly  they 


288 


japan:  country,  court,  peoule. 


sing,  and  the  ship’s  hand  with  their  instruments  swell  the 
volume  of  music  until  it  floats  to  the  shore.  The  music 
was  “Old  Hundred;”  the  hymn  was  “Before  Jehovah’s 
awful  throne,  ye  nations  how  with  sacred  joy;”  the  hig 
hook  was  the  Bihle.  In  the  afternoon  a minor  official 
was  denied  the  decks  of  the  ships;  it  was  their  rest  day. 
This  was  the  Admiral’s  habit  for  many  years.  It  was  a 
strange  sight  to  the  Japanese — the  Christians  chanting 
the  praises  of  the  one  true  God  and  his  Son  Jesus  Christ 
in  the  harbor  of  a pagan  city,  tlie  doing  of  which  for 
the  past  two  hundred  years  would  have  cost  Japanese 
and  Dutch  alike  their  lives.  It  was  a challenge  and  a 
prophecy  in  the  name  of  Christ.  To-day,  from  a thou- 
sand places  by  land  and  port,  the  Japanese  are  worship- 
ing Christ  without  molestation. 

The  Japanese,  with  quick  insight,  saw  that  they  dare 
not  treat  these  newcomers  as  they  had  habitually  treated 
the  Dutch.  The  point  gained  by  Perry  was  the  courte- 
ous reception  of  the  President’s  letter  and  the  establish- 
ment of  pleasant  personal  relations  with  the  Governor 
and  other  officials.  The  President’s  letter,  engrossed 
upon  costly  paper  and  incased  in  a gilded  box  costing 
one  thousand  dollars,  was  delivered  to  commissioners 
appointed  by  the  Taikun  to  receive  the  same,  and  by 
them  carried  up  to  Yedo,  the  capital.  The  Council  of 
Regents  was  much  perplexed  and  pressed  in  mind,  and 
sat  up  the  whole  night  considering  this  message  from 
the  head  of  the  American  Republic. 

As  the  Yedo  rulers  demanded  time  to  answer  the 
President’s  letter,  Perry  remained  only  a few  days, 
meanwhile  keeping  his  men  busy  surveying  the  bay  to- 
ward Yedo,  and  sailed  away,  saying  to  the  Japanese 
that  in  six  months  he  would  come  again  to  get  their  an- 
swer. Four  days  after  Perry  departed,  a message  was 


president  Fillmore’s  letter. 


289 

sent  to  inform  the  Mikado  at  Kioto  that  an  American 
fleet  had  come,  and  that  a letter  from  the  American 
President  had  been  received.  F orthwith,  in  distress,  the 
Mikado  dispatched  a messenger  to'  the  priest  at  Ise  to 
ofler  prayer  for  the  peace  of  the  empire,  and  for  the  di- 
vine breath  to  sweep  away  the  barbarians.  (See  “Mat- 
hew Calbraith  Perry,”  p.  345,  by  Griffis.) 

The  President’s  letter  was  in  part  as  follows: 

Millard  Fillmore,  President  of  the  United  States  of  America,  to  his  Impe- 
rial Majesty,  the  Emperor  of  Japan. 

Great  and  Good  Friend:  I send  you  this  public  letter  by 
Commodore  Matthew  C.  Perry,  an  officer  of  the  highest  rank  of 
the  navy  of  the  United  States,  and  Commodore  of  the  squad- 
ron now  visiting  your  imperial  dominions.  I have  directed 
Commodore  Perry  to  assure  your  Imperial  Majesty  that  . . . 
I have  no  other  object  in  sending  him  to  Japan  but  to  propose 
to  your  Imperial  Majesty  that  the  United  States  and  Japan 
should  live  in  friendship  and  have  commercial  intercourse 
with  each  other.  . . . The  United  States  reach  from  ocean 
to  ocean,  and  our  territory  of  Oregon  and  California  lies  di- 
rectly opposite  to  the  dominions  of  your  Imperial  Majesty. 
Our  steamships  can  go  from  California  to  Japan  in  eighteen 
daj^s.  . . .1  have  directed  the  Commodore  to  mention  an- 

other thing.  Many  of  our  ships  pass  every  3rear  from  California 
to  China,  and  great  numbers  of  our  people  pursue  the  whale  fish- 
ery near  the  shores  of  Japan.  It  sometimes  happens,  in  stormy 
weather,  that  one  of  our  ships  is  wrecked  on  your  Imperial 
Majesty’s  shores.  In  all  such  cases  we  ask  and  expect  that 
our  unfortunate  people  should  be  treated  with  kindness,  and 
that  their  property  should  be  protected,  until  we  can  send  a 
vessel  and  bring  them  away.  We  are  very  much  in  earnest  in 
this.  . . . These  are  the  only  objects  for  which  I have  sent 

Commodore  Perry,  with  a powerful  squadron,  to  pay  a visit 
to  your  Majesty’s  renowned  city  of  Yedo:  friendship,  a supply 
of  coal  and  provisions,  and  protection  for  our  shipwrecked 
people.  We  have  directed  Commodore  Perry  to  beg  your  Im- 
perial Majesty’s  acceptance  of  a few  presents;  they  are  of  no 
value  in  themselves,  but  may  serve  as  specimens  of  things 
19 


290 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


manufactured  iu  the  United  States,  and  they  are  intended  as 
tokens  of  our  sincere  and  respectful  friendship. 

May  the  Almighty  have  your  Imperial  Majesty  in  his  great 
and  holy  keeping! 

Your  good  friend,  Millard  Fillmore. 

Edward  Everett,  Secretary  of  State. 

[Seal  attached.] 

According  to  his  word,  Perry,  with  a larger  squad- 
ron of  nine  ships,  made  the  second  visit  to  Japan,  Feb- 
ruary, 1854,  and  this  time,  steaming  farther  up  into  the 
bay,  he  cast  anchor  off  where  now  sits  the  modern  city 
of  Yokohama.  When  informed  that  he  was  now  come 
to  get  their  answer  to  the  President’s  letter,  the  Japa- 
nese began  a policy  of  evasion  and  delay.  After  wait- 
ing several  days  and  listening  to  their  demands  and 
evasive  answers,  he  moved  his  ships  farther  up  the  bay 
toward  Yredo,  and  notified  them  that  he  was  willing  to 
treat  with  them  on  the  shore  just  opposite  his  present 
anchorage;  that  if  they  continued  to  refuse  him  a suit- 
able place,  he  should,  in  accordance  with  the  usage  of 
civilized  nations,  go  up  to  Y"edo  in  order  to  treat  with 
the  rulers  in  the  capital.  Lest  he  might  sure  enough 
sail  right  up  to  Yredo,  the  Japanese  suddenly  changed 
tack  and  agreed  to  meet  Perry  on  Yokohama  beach. 
Accordingly  a “treaty  house”  was  thrown  up,  and  the 
report  spread  through  all  the  towns  and  villages  of  the 
region,  as  well  as  in  Y^edo,  that  their  rulers  were  about 
to  treat  with  the  foreign  barbarians  at  that  appointed 
place. 

On  the  8th  of  March,  1854,  a clear  and  beautiful 
morning,  crowds  of  excited  people  gathered  upon  the 
bluffs  overlooking  the  place — country  folk,  Samurai, 
with  swords  and  other  feudal  paraphernalia,  crowded 
out  to  see  the  strange  spectacle  of  their  own  authorities 
receiving  as  equals  the  foreign  barbarians  and  treating 


TREATY  MADE  BY  PERRY. 


291 


with  them.  The  Japanese  officials,  with  their  suites 
and  flying  insignia  of  rank,  could  be  seen  standing  on 
the  beach  near  the  water’s  edge,  while  others  were  in 
their  boats,  with  banners  and  other  regalia,  all  waiting 
eagerly  the  Commodore’s  coming.  Attended  by  his 
officers,  marines,  and  sailors,  numbering  three  hundred 
men,  all  uniformed  and  armed,  he  was  quickly  rowed 
to  the  shore,  and,  with  the  United  States  flag  borne 
aloft,  was  escorted  to  the  “treaty  house,”  where  he 
was  received  with  much  courtesy  and  conducted  to  seats 
within.  Treaty  negotiations  were  now  begun  in  ear- 
nest, and  after  several  days  of  such  meetings,  though 
with  less  formality  and  much  parleying,  a treaty  was 
concluded.  According  to  the  treaty  the  Japanese  were 
to  open  two  ports  to  the  free  access  of  American  ships , and 
the  American  government  would  send  consular  representa- 
tives to  reside  there  whenever  deemed  advisable. 

The  two  objects  of  Perry’s  mission  had  thus  been 
peacefully  accomplished:  humanity  and  trade.  Pres- 
ents also  were  exchanged  in  plenty.  Indeed,  Perry 
had  personally  superintended  the  buying  of  a great 
quantity  of  useful  implements  and  machinery  intended 
as  presents  from  the  United  States  to  Japan:  steam  en- 
gines and  rails,  telegraph  apparatus  and  wire,  rifles, 
gunpowder,  sewing  machines,  clocks,  plows,  mowers, 
maps,  charts,  book's,  wines,  etc.  Rails  were  laid,  the 
engine  placed  thereon,  steam  got  up,  and  it  was  run 
to  the  great  astonishment  and  delight  of  the  people. 
As  fear  wore  off,  they  drew  nearer,  and  soon  were  glad 
to  mount  the  engine  and  ride  around  and  around  the 
great  circle  like  so  many  happy  children.  One  mile  of 
telegraph  line  was  also  put  in  operation,  to  the  infinite 
astonishment  of  the  Japanese. 

Commodore  Perry,  by  his  commanding  presence,  his 


292 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


kindly  consideration  of  all  that  was  fair  and  right, 
coupled  with  firmness  and  dignity,  convinced  the  Japa- 
nese officials  that  he  was  an  extraordinary  man.  And 
he  was;  he  was  both  a great  naval  officer  and  a good 
man.  A constant  reader  of  the  Bible,  he  observed  the 
sanctities  of  the  Sunday,  even  upon  foreign  seas.  Re- 
turning to  America,  where  he  was  the  recipient  of  hon- 
ors in  different  cities  and  States,  his  stalwart  frame 
and  iron  will  began  to  yield  to  the  heavy  strain  so  long 
endured.  He  lived  only  till  the  4th  of  March,  1858. 
Dying  in  New  York,  there  was  profound  grief,  and 
many  distinguished  men,  civilians,  army  and  naval  offi- 
cers, attended  the  funeral.  Among  the  mourners  were 
many  of  the  sailors  who  had  been  under  him  in  the  Ja- 
pan expedition,  as  well  as  others  who  had  fought  in  the 
Mexican  war  with  him.  A suitable  monument  marks 
his  grave  at  Newport,  R.  I.  A better  one  is  in  his- 
tory: his  heroic  deeds. 

It  should  have  been  mentioned  in  the  foregoing  that 
as  soon  as  it  was  known  that  the  Americans  had  suc- 
ceeded in  making  a treaty  with  the  Japanese,  the  Eng- 
glish,  Russians,  and  Dutch  made  similar  treaties.  And 
so  Japan  was  opened  to  the  trade  and  Christian  civili- 
zation of  the  outside  world,  opened  never  again  to  be 
closed. 

II.  Townsend  Harris,  Another  American  in  Japan. 

It  was  Commodore  Perry’s  duty  to  press  open  a 
barred  door;  it  fell  to  Mr.  Townsend  Harris  to  keep  it 
open,  to  complete  Perry’s  work  by  making  a fuller 
treaty  of  friendship  and  commerce.  No  more  honor- 
able chapter  in  the  history  of  America’s  foreign  inter- 
course has  ever  been  made  than  that  of  our  first  Consul 
General  and  Plenipotentiary  to  Japan,  in  1856-1861;  nor 


TOWNSEND  HARRIS,  ANOTHER  AMERICAN. 


293 


has  any  officer  sent  abroad  to  represent  our  government 
had  greater  difficulties  to  overcome  in  the  achievement 
of  a victory  at  once  so  signal  in  its  consequences  both 
to  Japan  and  to  foreign  nations,  and  so  peaceful  in  the 
means  employed  to  win  it.  The  story  of  Mr.  Harris’s 
career  in  Japan,  first  as  Consul  General  and  then  as  Min- 
ister, gathered  chiefly  from  his  own  diary,  remains  to 
be  told.  He  was  born  in  1804,.  in  New  York  State. 
His  parents  were  fond  of  books,  and  fostered  in  Town- 
send a fondness  for  study.  His  mother  was  a stately 
woman  of  keen  intellect  and  engaging  manners.  His 
grandmother,  named  Thankful,  taught  him  to  tell 
the  truth,  fear  God,  and  hate  the  British,  all  of  which 
he  did  to  the  end  of  his  life.  Neat  in  person,  careful 
in  his  dress,  courtly  in  manner,  he  was  a cultured 
Christian  gentleman  who  read  the  best  books,  both  in 
French  and  English,  and  was  a successful  business  man. 
For  thirty-five  years  a resident  of  New  York,  for  many 
years  the  head  of  a prosperous  mercantile  house  trading 
with  China,  and  for  six  years  on  the  Pacific  Ocean  or 
in  the  Orient,  he  gained  an  uncommonly  good  knowl- 
edge of  things  and  people  in  the  Far  East.  In  his  ca- 
reer is  illustrated  the  truth  that  when  God  marks  out  by 
his  providence  a certain  man  for  an  uncommon  task  in 
life,  his  previous  training  and  experience  somehow  turn 
out  to  be  a preparation  for  the-  special  task. 

In  accordance  with  Commodore  Perry’s  treaty,  Mr. 
Harris  was  appointed  consul  general  to  Japan  by  Pres- 
ident Pierce  in  1855,  and,  after  a long  voyage  around 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  he  reached  Shimoda,  one  of 
the  two  treaty  ports,  in  August,  1856.  Mr.  Heusken, 
a Hollander,  was  his  clerk  and  Dutch  interpreter. 

Immediately  upon  his  arrival,  and  even  before  land- 
ing from  the  ship,  he  was  met  by  annoyances  and  de- 


294 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


lays  which  seemed  to  him  absurd,  and  which  tried  his 
patience.  The  Governor  of  Shimoda  tried  to  avoid 
recognizing  him  as  Consul  General  of  America,  wishing 
to  receive  him  only  as  one  of  Commodore  Armstrong’s 
suite.  He  attempted  to  quarter  Japanese  officers  in  his 
house,  “day  and  night  to  await  his  pleasure,”  really 
to  act  as  spies.  The  people  were  forbidden  all  deal- 
ings with  him,  hoping  thereby  to  force  the  buying  of 
things  through  a Japanese  official;  lie  was  refused  for 
a long  time  the  exchange  of  American  money  for  Jap- 
anese coin;  and  even  the  simple  request  for  two  Japa- 
nese servants  was  delayed  for  a long  course  of  negotia- 
tions, evasions,  and  lying.  Finally,  when  he  became 
thoroughly  convinced  that  the  Japanese  officials,  both 
at  Yedo  and  Shimado,  were  trying  to  prevent  the 
treaty  with  Perry  from  taking  effect,  Mr.  Harris,  tak- 
ing occasion  of  the  visit  of  a high  Yedo  official  and  the 
Vice  Governor  of  the  town  with  their  retinues,  told 
them  plainly  that  they  were  lying,  and  that  if  they 
wished  any  respect  from  him  they  must  tell  him  the  truth. 
Every  little  order  for  a trifling  thing  needed  in  his 
household  affairs  required  the  longest  delay  and  called 
forth  many  excuses  and  promises;  and  the  most  ob- 
vious regulations  of  the  treaty  were  obstinately  ob- 
structed by  mountains  of  difficulties  and  delays. 

Of  course  it  must  be  remembered,  not  as  an  excuse 
for  their  lying  but  as  a palliation  of  their  slowness,  that 
all  this  treaty  business  and  foreign  consuls  were  new 
things  to  the  Japanese.  If  Consul  General  Harris 
had  submitted  to  be  browbeaten  and  treated  generally 
like  the  Dutch  at  Nagasaki,  the  Japanese  would  have 
known  how  to  act,  but  they  were  now  dealing  with  an 
American.  It  must  also  be  remembered  that  the  ma- 
jority of  the  most  powerful  Daimyos  were  bitterly  op- 


HARMS  PROCEEDS  TO  YEDO. 


295 


posing  their  Shogun  for  having  made  a treaty  with  the 
Americans,  and  were  now  angry  over  the  country  be- 
ing opened  to  foreign  trade  and  intercourse,  so  that 
probably  Mr.  Harris  was  not  aware  of  the  dangers  that 
threatened  the  Shogun’s  government,  making  him  afraid 
to  carry  out  the  treaty.  What  added  to  the  burdens 
and  difficulties,  already  too  heavy  upon  Mr.  Harris,  was 
the  apparent  neglect  of  the  authorities  at  W ashington 
in  not  communicating  with  him.  For  more  than  a year 
after  reaching  Shimoda  he  received  not  a letter  from 
America.  His  stores  gave  out,  and,  compelled  to  re- 
sort to  Japanese  food,  his  life  as  an  exile  beset  with 
so  many  annoyances  began  to  wear  away,  his  spirits 
and  health  failed.  And  yet  in  spite  of  it  all  he  evinced 
an  unconquerable  will,  and  determined  to  meet  the 
strategies  and  deceptions  of  the  Japanese  officials  with 
truth,  honesty  and  truth  always,  and  with  this  weapon 
he  finally  won  victory. 

A signal  example  was  the  case  of  the  President’s  let- 
ter. This  letter,  addressed  to  the  Emperor  of  Japan, 
then  supposed  to  be  the  Taikun  or  Shogun,  was  in- 
trusted to  Harris  with  instructions  to  deliver  it  in  per- 
son at  Yedo.  The  Japanese  invented  every  possible 
excuse  to  prevent  him  from  going  up  to  Yedo.  But  he 
remained  firm  in  his  demand,  and  though  for  many 
months  they  refused  to  answer  his  communications, 
finally,  after  a year’s  delay,  the  Yedo  rulers  agreed 
that  he  should  come  to  the  capital  in  the  person  of  an 
American  envoy. 

The  Shogun  issued  a proclamation  to  the  officials: 
“The  present  audience  with  the  American  Ambassador 
will  be  a precedent  for  all  foreign  countries  and  must 
be  attended  with  great  care.  As  intercourse  with  the 
foreign  countries  necessitates  repeal  of  all  regulations 


296 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


and  restrictions,  the  matter  is  attended  with  difficulty, 
the  possible  evils  cannot  be  foreseen.” 

Elaborate  preparations  were  made  for  the  American 
envoy’s  journey.  The  government  issued  another  or- 
der to  the  officials  along  the  way:  “When  the  Amer- 
ican ambassador  visits  Yedo,  each  householder  is  to 
keep  his  portion  of  the  road  swept  clean;  travelers  may 
pass  as  usual,  but  beggars  must  be  removed,  and  guards 
must  be  stationed  at  the  small  guardhouses  to  suppress 
disorder;  sight-seers  may  stand  at  designated  places,  but 
noise  and  confusion  are  not  to  be  allowed.”  Mr.  Har- 
ris with  all  his  insight  and  consideration,  did  not  then 
understand  either  the  difficulty  or  the  personal  danger 
to  himself  in  making  this  journey. 

On  Monday,  November  23,  1857,  he  started  from 
Shimoda,  and  as  the  Shogun  had  decided  to  receive  him 
in  the  most  honorable  manner,  a great  retinue  was  or- 
dered to  escort  him  after  the  fashion  of  a great  Daimyo 
or  military  lord.  Besides  the  flag,  Mr.  Harris’s  guards 
had  the  arms  of  the  United  States  marked  upon  their 
breasts,  and  all  the  packages  had  covers  in  which  were 
worked  the  same,  and  several  little  pennants  of  the 
United  States  were  flying  from  short  bamboo  sticks  at- 
tached to  the  articles  of  baggage.  A strange  cavalcade 
that,  an  American  envoy  traveling  in  state  to  the  capi- 
tal with  a Japanese  escort  numbering  three  hundred 
men,  including  the  Vice  Governor  and  other  officials. 
Striking  into  the  great  national  road,  thirty  or  forty 
feet  wide,  and  bordered  by  noble  cypress,  pine,  fir, 
and  camphor  trees,  he  traveled  sometimes  near  the  sea 
in  sight  of  many  white  fishing  sails,  then  was  hid  among 
the  hills,  or  skirted  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  but 
everywhere  was  treated  with  distinguished  honor  by 
the  curious  people  along  the  way,  who,  in  holiday  garb, 


HARRIS  PROCEEDS  TO  YEDO. 


297 


had  come  out  to  see  the  great  American  barbarian;  and 
those  of  rank  saluted  him,  while  all  below  rank  knelt 
with  eyes  averted  from  him.  At  every  stopping  place 
the  house  was  decorated  with  strips  of  cloth  festooning 
gateways  and  door,  and  the  imperial  colors.  A stake 
was  always  in  place  for  hoisting  the  United  States 
flag,  lie  observed  that  the  country  seemed  prosperous, 
the  people  well  fed  and  clean,  an  equal  absence  of 
wealth  and  poverty.  Only  one  unpleasant  episode  oc- 
curred along  the  whole  way.  At  the  gates  of  the  Ha- 
kone  Pass  the  Japanese  officials  were  going  to  search 
his  palanquin  according  to  their  regulations  respecting 
Japanese  subjects.  To  this  Mr.  Harris  justly  objected 
because,  as  the  envoy  of  a foreign  government,  he  was 
not  subject  to  their  regulations.  They  insisted,  saying 
that  it  was  a mere  matter  of  form,  but  he  remained  firm, 
and  threatened  to  go  back  tolShimoda  before  he  would 
submit.  He  was  allowed  to  pass  without  examination. 

After  a week’s  journey  Mr.  Harris  with  his  retinue 
passed  in  state  into  Yedo,  the  streets  for  seven  miles 
being  lined  with  people  eager  to  see  the  great  foreigner. 
Thus  escorted  by  officials  and  guarded  by  rows  of  po- 
licemen, armed  with  two  swords,  and  standing  in  front 
of  the  lines  of  people,  he  rode  in  his  palanquin  through 
streets,  across  bridges  and  moats,  until  finally,  borne  at 
a full  run  by  his  bearers  through  the  gateway  of  the 
high  castle  wall  of  stone,  he  was  received  at  one  of  the 
Shogun’s  houses  by  a prince,  and  with  warm  welcome 
assigned  his  apartments.  This  was  in  truth  an  impor- 
tant event  in  Mr.  Harris’s  life  and  more  important  in 
the  history  of  Japan,  for  he  was  the  first  foreign  repre- 
sentative received  at  the  capital  with  the  rights  and 
honors  of  embassy  fully  recognized. 

Eight  persons  of  rank  having  been  appointed  “Com- 


298 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


missioners  of  the  American  Ambassadors’  voyage  to 
Yedo,”  he  was  waited  upon  by  them  in  state  and  arrange- 
ments were  made  for  an  audience  with  the  Shogun  and 
presentation  of  the  President’s  letter. 

Awaiting  the  day,  they  attempted  to  get  him  mean- 
while to  promise  not  to  go  about  in  the  city.  Misun- 
derstanding their  motives  and  not  aware  of  the  danger 
to  his  life,  he  refused  to  promise.  As  a matter  of  fact 
two  ronin  (roving,  bullying  rowdies  without  a liege 
lord)  had  made  a conspiracy  to  assassinate  the  Ameri- 
can. They  were  arrested  and  afterwards  died  in  prison. 
The  Japanese  authorities  were  truly  anxious  about  the 
American’s  safety,  but  were  ashamed  to  tell  him  the 
true  situation,  and,  being  a brave  man,  he  was  liable  to 
embarrass  them  unknowingly  by  exposing  himself  to 
attack.  As  a thing  to  be  noted,  on  the  first  Sunday  in 
Yedo,  Mr.  Harris,  assisted  by  Mr.  Heusken,  read  the 
full  service  for  the  day  according  to  the  prayer  book  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  As  the  American  was 
the  first  foreign  flag  ever  planted  in  the  capital,  so  this 
was  the  first  Christian  service  of  the  Protestant  Church 
ever  celebrated.  With  paper  doors  pushed  back  and 
with  voices  to  be  heard  through  the  building,  the 
American  Envoy  and  devout  Christian  read  the  scrip- 
tures and  prayers  in  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ,  a name 
forbidden  to  be  worshiped  under  penalty  of  death.  In 
his  diary  for  this  Sunday  Mr.  Harris  says:  “I  mean  to 
demand  for  the  Americans  the  free  exercise  of  their  re- 
ligion in  Japan,  and  to  demand  the  abolition  of  the 
trampling  on  the  cross  which  the  Dutch  have  basely 
witnessed  for  two  hundred  and  thirty  years  at  Naga- 
saki. I shall  be  both  proud  and  happy  if  I can  be  the 
humble  means  of  once  more  opening  Japan  to  the 
blessed  rule  of  Christianity.” 


HARRIS’S  AUDIENCE  WITH  THE  SHOGUN. 


299 


Upon  the  appointed  day  Mr.  Harris  was  conducted 
forth  to  be  received  in  audience  by  the  Shogun.  We 
will  let  him  describe  the  ceremony,  omitting  here  and 
there  some  details.  “I  was  attended  by  the  same  es- 
cort as  on  my  visit  to  the  Prime  Minister.  My  dress 
was  a coat  embroidered  with  gold,  after  the  pattern 
prescribed  from  Washington  — blue  pantaloons  with 
gold  stripes  down  the  legs,  cocked  hat  with  gold  tas- 
sels, and  pearl-handle  dress  sword..  On  arriving  at 
the  second  moat  all  except  the  Prince  and  myself  had 
to  leave  their  palanquins,  and  just  before  reaching  the 
bridge  the  Prince  left  his,  together  with  the  horses, 
spears  and  attendants-  At  the  bridge  I left  mine, 
crossed  it  accompanied  by  Mr.  Heusken,  my  interpreter 
bearing  the  President’s  letter,  and  proceeded  to  the  au- 
dience hall.  Before  entering  I put  on  my  new  shoes 
and  waited  awhile.  Informed  that  the  time  for  the  au- 
dience had  come,  I passed  down  by  the  Daimyos,  who 
were  seated  like  so  many  statues.  As  we  approached 
the  audience  chamber,  the  Prince  threw  himself  upon 
his  hands  and  knees,  and  a chamberlain  cried  in  a loud 
voice:  ‘Ambassador  American!’  About  six  feet  from  the 
door,  I halted  and  bowed,  then  advanced  to  the  middle  of 
the  chamber,  halted  and  bowed  again,  the  Prime  Minister 
and  Great  Council  being  prostrated  on  my  right,  the 
three  brothers  of  the  Shogun  likewise  prostrated  on  my 
left.  Pausing  a few  seconds,  I addressed  the  Shogun  as 
follows:  ‘May  it  please  your  Majesty,  in  presenting 
my  letters  of  credence  from  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  I am  directed  to  express  to  your  Majesty  the  sin- 
cere wishes  of  the  President  for  your  health  and  happi- 
ness and  for  the  prosperity  of  your  dominions.  I con- 
sider it  a great  honor  that  I have  been  selected  to  fill  the 
high  and  important  place  of  Plenipotentiary  at  the  court 


300 


Japan:  country,  court,  people. 


of  your  Majesty;  and,  as  my  earnest  wish  is  to  unite  the 
two  countries  more  closely  in  the  ties  of  enduring  friend- 
ship, my  constant  exertions  shall  he  directed  to  the  at- 
tainment of  that  happy  end.’  After  a short  silence  the 
Shogun  began  jerking  his  head  backward  over  his  left 
shoulder,  at  the  same  time  stamping  with  his  right  foot. 
This  was  repeated  three  or  four  times;  then  in  a pleas- 
ant and  firm  voice  he  spoke  what  was  interpreted  as 
follows:  4 Pleased  with  the  letter  sent  with  the  Ambas- 
sador from  a far-distant  country,  and  likewise  pleased 
with  the  discourse.  Intercourse  shall  continue  for- 
ever.5 Mr.  Heusken,  who  had  remained  back  at  the 
entrance,  now  advanced,  bringing  the  President’s  letter 
and  bowed  three  times,  whereupon  the  Prime  Minis- 
ter arose  and  stood  upon  his  feet  by  my  side.  Opening 
tiie  box  and  showing  the  letters,  the  Prime  Minister 
received  them  upon  the  palms  of  his  two  hands  and 
then  placed  them  upon  the  lacquered  stand  near  by. 
lie  then  prostrated  himself  again  before  the  Shogun 
and  I faced  him.  After  a moment’s  pause,  he  dis- 
missed me  with  a courteous  bow.  So  ended  my  audi- 
ence. As  for  the  Shogun,  he  was  seated  upon  a chair  on 
a platform  raised  about  two  feet  above  the  floor.  From 
the  ceiling  there  was  hung  in  front  of  him  a grass  cur- 
tain, rolled  up  and  kept  in  place  by  large  silk  cords  and 
heavy  tassels.  His  dress  was  silk  with  a little  gold 
woven  through  it,  but  was  far  removed  from  royal 
splendor.  No  rich  jewels,  elaborate  gold  ornaments, 
nor  diamond-hilted  weapons  were  seen.  His  crown  was 
a black  lacquered  cap  of  a bell  shape.  There  was  no 
gilding  in  the  audience  hall,  the  wooden  posts  thereof 
being  un painted,  nor  was  there  any  furniture  in  any  of 
the  rooms  except  the  brasiers  and  the  chairs  brought  in 
for  my  use.” 


HARRIS  CONCLUDES  BETTER  TREATIES. 


301 


The  Prince  told  Mr.  Harris  that  all  present  at  the 
audience  were  amazed  at  his  “greatness  of  soul,”  and 
his  hearing  in  the  presence  of  Japan’s  mighty  ruler:  they 
had  expected  him  to  he  humble,  to  quake,  and  to  speak 
with  faltering  voice. 

Anxious  to  negotiate  a fuller  treaty  than  Perry’s,  short- 
ly after  the  audience  Mr.  Harris  began  to  urge  the  mat- 
ter upon  the  attention  of  the  Prime  Minister,  to  whom 
he  said:  “By  negotiating  a treaty  with  me  who  am 
purposely  come  to  Yedo  alone  and  without  a single 
man-of-war,  the  honor  of  Japan  should  he  saved  and 
the  country  gradually  opened.”  He  named  three  points 
to  he  covered  by  the  treaty:  first,  the  residence  of  for- 
eign ministers  in  Yedo;  second,  freedom  of  trade  with 
the  Japanese  without  the  interference  of  government 
officers;  third,  the  opening  of  additional  ports. 

He  further  pointed  out  the  danger  and  humiliation 
that  now  threatened  China  from  the  fleets  of  the  for- 
eign powers,  and  how  similar  danger  might  soon 
threaten  Japan;  hut  showed  that,  by  voluntarily  enter- 
ing into  relations  of  friendship  and  commerce,  Japan 
could  become  a prosperous  and  powerful  nation.  The 
discourse  lasted  two  hours,  and  the  Prime  Minister  was 
deeply  impressed.  But  obstacles  were  great  that  stood 
in  the  way  of  Japan’s  coming  into  closer  relations  with 
the  American  or  other  foreign  nation.  At  that  very 
hour  the  Shogun’s  government  was  a seething  caldron. 

The  leading  men  of  the  clans,  as  well  as  the  court 
officers,  had  been  stirred  up  over  the  reception  of  the 
foreign  envoy,  the  representative  of  a barbarian  coun- 
try, at  the  capital,  and  the  honors  accorded  him.  In- 
deed, the  fires  of  internal  strife  over  the  question  of 
opening  the  country  to  foreigners  were  threatening  to 
break  out  against  the  Shogun’s  government,  and  plots 


302 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


to  murder  tlie  foreign  barbarians  were  freely  made  by 
reckless  ronin.  But  Mr.  Harris  continued  to  urge  the 
necessity  of  making  a better  treaty,  and  finally  com- 
missioners were  appointed  to  negotiate  it,  and  meet- 
ings were  held  for  the  purpose.  After  tedious  and 
vexatious  negotiations  for  six  iceeks , a treaty  was  con- 
cluded. The  Daimyos  had  to  be  consulted,  the  Shogun’s 
brothers  and  the  Council  of  State  had  to  be  won  over. 
The  treaty  included  every  important  point  that  Mr. 
Harris  contended  for,  and  was  really  a treaty  of  friend- 
ship as  well  as  commerce;  such  as,  residence  of  diplomat- 
ic and  consular  agents;  the  opening  of  additional  ports, 
as  Ivanagawa  (Yokohama),  Nagasaki,  Iliogo  (Kobe), 
and  American  citizens  to  reside  therein;  exchange  of 
foreign  coin,  religious  freedom,  limits  of  foreign  travel 
fixed;  mediation  of  the  United  States  in  differences  be- 
tween Japan  and  European  powers;  the  right  of  Japan 
to  buy  or  build  ships  of  war  in  the  United  States,  and 
to  engage  men  for  scientific  instruction,  and  for  admin- 
istrative advice,  etc.  It  was  signed  July  29,  1858,  but 
was  not  to  go  into  effect  until  July  4,  1859.  This  new 
treaty  was  forthwith  reported  to  the  Mikado  at  Kioto 
for  his  sanction.  The  Shoguns  had  seen  the  day  when 
he  was  little  sought;  but  now,  with  the  tremendous  op- 
position to  the  new  move  the  government  was  attempt- 
ing, it  was  very  desirable  to  secure  the  sanction  of  the 
hitherto  mere  nominal  sovereign.  The  Shogun’s  min- 
isters dispatched  for  this  purpose  urged  upon  the  court 
the  necessity  of  discontinuing  the  old  policy  of  exclud- 
ing foreigners  and  foreign  trade;  but  notwithstanding 
insinuations,  intimidations,  and  persuasions,  the  Mikado 
was  induced  by  his  courtiers  to  firmly  refuse.  The 
Mikado’s  ministers  questioned  the  Shogun’s  messengers 
closely.  “Does  not  the  national  sentiment  abhor  the 


MIKADO  REFUSES  TO  SANCTION  TREATIES.  303 

treaty?  What  do  ‘ 1854  ’ and  4 1858,’  dates  in  the  treaty 
signify?  Do  these  dates  not  show  that  America  is  a 
country  of  the  evil  sect  (Christianity)?  What  security 
give  you  that  the  barbarians,  whom  you  would  let  re- 
side in  Hiogo,  will  not  defame  the  sacred  capital?  ” It 
was  impossible  to  satisfy  these  questions,  for  who  can 
satisfy  prejudice  and  ignorance?  The  great  Daimyos  in 
in  the  South  and  Southwest  were  bitterly  opposed  to 
opening  the  country,  and  among  many  of  the  populace 
likewise  the  same  sentiment  was  rife.  Placards  were 
posted  in  the  streets  inciting  to  vengeance  upon  the 
traitors  who  had  befriended  “strange  folks.”  Thus 
Harris’s  treaty  became  the  occasion  for  two  parties:  the 
one,  the  Mikado  party,  that  hated  foreigners  and  would 
drive  them  away;  the  other,  the  Shogun  party,  who, 
though  not  loving  the  foreigner,  said  that  the  times 
were  changed  and  that  Japan  could  no  longer  maintain 
her  isolation,  but  must  enter  into  treaty  relations  with 
the  great  foreign  powers.  Hence,  in  spite  of  the  clamor 
against  it,  the  Shogun’s  government  subsequently  con- 
cluded with  Great  Britain,  Russia,  France,  and  Hol- 
land treaties  based  upon  those  with  the  United  States. 

Before  going  into  the  tumultuous  period  that  fol- 
lowed the  signing  of  the  treaty  with  the  American 
envoy,  a few  more  words  about  Mr.  Harris.  The  his- 
torians have  not  generally  given  him  justice,  least  of 
all  the  British,  who  imagine;  that  the  presence  of  their 
conquering  fleets  in  Chinese  waters  was  the  chief  cause 
of  Japan’s  willingness  to  conclude  a treaty  with  the 
Americans.  And  Harris  did  make  a discreet  allusion 
to  the  warlike  events  taking  place  on  China’s  coast, 
but  in  fact  he  did  not  use  threats,  he  rather  used 
moral  suasion  and  relied  upon  the  power  of  truth  to 
persuade.  He  kindly,  patiently  instructed  the  Sho- 


304 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


gun’s  ministers.  As  his  diaries  show,  he  from  day  to 
day  gave  them  what  was  practically  a course  of  instruc- 
tion in  international  law  and  commerce  and  the  prog- 
ress of  modern  nations.  As  Mr.  Nitobe,  the  Japanese 
author  of  “Intercourse  between  Japan  and  the  United 
States,”  says:  “While  Commodore  Perry  used  mild 
words,  his  conduct  was  to  the  Japanese  audacious,  and 
backed  by  his  fleet,  which  he  never  used,  he  neverthe- 
less inspired  awe;  but  Mr.  Harris  was  both  gentle  in 
words  and  action,  and  inspired  confidence.” 

Let  us  consider  for  a moment  what  he  did  and  how 
he  did  it.  Accompanied  by  only  one  foreigner,  a Hol- 
lander, with  not  a semblance  of  military  power  of  arms 
or  ships,  he  succeeded  by  the  forces  of  reason — intelli- 
gent counsel,  firmness,  persistence,  and  by  manifest 
truthfulness  and  honesty — in  persuading  the  Japanese 
rulers  at  Yedo  to  conclude  this  fuller  treaty  of  com- 
merce and  friendship.  As  seen  above,  Great  Britain 
and  other  nations  were  not  slow  to  take  advantage  of 
the  American’s  patient  toil  and  unprecedented  achieve- 
ment. But  it  came  near  costing  the  noble  American 
his  life.  Nature  too  long  overtaxed  could  no  longer 
stand  up;  directly  upon  his  return  from  Yedo*  to  Shi- 
moda  he  fell  dangerously  ill  of  nervous  fever,  and  was 
for  many  weeks  near  the  door  of  death. 

III.  Stormy  Seas. 

It  was  a critical  time  in  the  history  of  Japan,  and  as 
the  Shogun  had  been  apoplectic,  Ii  Kamon,  Lord  of  Ha- 
kone  was  appointed  Regent,  and  soon  became  the  head 
of  the  progressive  party  that  favored  making  treaties 
and  trade  with  foreign  nations. 

Mito,  a powerful  and  scheming  vassal  lord,  became 
the  head  of  the  party  that  opposed  trade  and  friendship 


II  KAMON  ASSASSINATED. 


305 


with  the  foreigners.  lie  was  connected  by  family  with 
the  reigning  Shogun,  and  by  marriage  with  the  imperial 
house  and  the  wealthiest  Daimyos. 

Ii  Kamon  was  a resolute  and  shrewd  statesman,  and 
as  Regent  had  the  reins  of  government  in  his  own  hands, 
lie  therefore  began  a bold  policy  of  suppressing  his  op- 
ponents by  causing  the  arrest  of  influential  men  con- 
nected with  Mito,  and  of  high  officers  of  the  Mikado’s 
court.  Five  of  the  more  powerful  Daimyos  were  de- 
posed and  their  vast  estates  turned  over  to  their  sons, 
yet  mere  children 

Mito  himself  was  ordered  to  remain  in  his  own 
house  as  a prisoner,  and  spies  were  appointed  to  watch 
him. 

The  Regent  now  rewarded  his  friends  and  supporters 
by  giving  them  high  position  in  the  government.  Of 
course  he  knew  he  was  playing  a dangerous  game.  The 
thing  he  now  had  to  fear  was  assassination,  and  sure 
enough  it  came  to  him.  On  the  morning  of  the  23d  of 
March,  1860,  a great  levee  was  to  be  held  in  the  Sho- 
gun’s castle,  and  now  that  all  his  enemies  had  been  put 
down,  it  was  to  be  a day  to  glorify  the  young  Shogun 
and  his  able  Regent.  But  alas  for  the  Regent!  Scarcely 
had  he  emerged  from  his  mansion,  borne  in  his  palan- 
quin to  the  castle,  when  he  was  rushed  upon  by  armed 
men  and  killed;  his  head  was  cut  off  and  sent  to  Mito’s 
city,  and  there  exposed. 

Great  confusion  followed  and  nobody  knew  what  to 
look  for  next.  The  Shogun  was  a youth,  and  his  cabi- 
net seemed  stunned  now  that  their  able  head  had  been 
lost.  Nothing  was  done,  though  it  was  clear  that 
Mito’s  retainers  had  perpetrated  the  deed.  The  assas- 
sins voluntarily  confessed  the  deed  and  gave  as  their 
reason  that  Ii  Kamon  had  admitted  foreigners  into  the 
20 


306 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


country  by  treaty,  and  that  this  was  contrary  to  the 
will  of  the  Emperor. 

Two  things  appear  in  all  this:  First,  the  bitter  hatred 
of  the  military  class  toward  the  foreigners;  secondly, 
the  Emperor  felt  “his  face  fouled”  by  the  making  of 
a treaty  with  the  “barbarians”  without  his  consent. 

The  government,  now  weakened  by  the  loss  of  the  able 
and  resolute  Regent,  and  the  Emperor’s  displeasure  over 
the  treaty  having  become  known,  the  country  would  at 
once  have  been  plunged  into  civil  war  but  for  the  fear 
of  the  hated  foreigners,  who  were  now  at  the  door.  For 
the  first  time  in  their  history  the  Japanese  leaders  felt 
they  must  stand  united  because  of  the  presence  of  the 
foreign  powers,  whom  they  feared.  All  wished  the  for- 
eign barbarians  driven  away,  but  it  was  not  done;  even 
Mito,  their  archenemy,  did  not  come  forward  to  lead  the 
glorious  war  against  the  handful  of  hated  foreigners 
within  the  two  or  three  treaty  ports.  Instead  of  open 
war,  the  assassin’s  role  toward  the  foreigners  was 
adopted.  Outrages  on  foreigners  now  followed  in  quick 
succession. 

Pursuant  to  the  Harris  treaty,  a minister  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  Shogun’s  court  in  Yedo  by  tlm  United 
States  government,  and  Mr.  Harris*  himself  was  the 
man,  with  Mr.  Heusken  as  the  Legation  secretary. 
Other  foreign  ministers  also  took  up  residence  in  the 
Shogun’s  capital.  But  on  the  14th  of  January,  1861, 
Mr.  Heusken  was  attacked  by  night  and  murdered. 
The  Shogun’s  government  was  alarmed,  and  sent  a note 
warning  the  foreign  legations  not  to  attend  Mr.  Heus- 
ken’s  funeral,  lest  there  might  be  an  attack  upon  all 
of  them;  but  they  did  attend , and  there  was  no  outbreak. 


*See  p.  292. 


JAPANESE  EMBASSY  TO  WASHINGTON. 


307 


Iii  July  the  British  legation  was  attacked  by  ronin 
banded  together  to  kill  the  accursed  foreigners,  and  this 
notwithstanding  the  government  had  stationed  a Japa- 
nese guard.  Several  of  the  guards  were  killed,  and  two 
Britishers  were  severely  wounded.  The  Shogun’s  min- 
isters were  now  filled  with  alarm,  and  humiliation  too, 
seeing  that  they  were  unable  to  protect  the  foreign  le- 
gations, and  fearing  the  foreign  powers  might  be  pro- 
voked into  war.  The  truth  is,  the  Shogun’s  government 
was  playing  a false  part  by  trying  to  keep  the  represent- 
atives of  foreign  powers  in  the  dark  as  to  the  unfriendly 
complications  that  now  existed  between  the  two  courts 
of  Yedo  and  Kioto,  and  as  to  the  fact  that  the  Southern 
and  Southwestern  Daimyos  were  agitating  the  rights  of 
the  Emperor  and  forming  an  anti- Shogun  party. 

Meanwhile,  through  the  agency  of  Mr.  Harris,  an  em- 
bassy was  sent  by  the  Japanese  to  Washington.  Com- 
posed of  influential  personages,  and  everywhere  received 
with  kindness  and  honor,  the  embassy’s  visit  to  San 
Francisco,  Washington,  Baltimore,  and  other  cities  did 
much  good.  It  showed  the  Americans  that  among  the 
Japanese  were  men  of  astute  minds  and  graceful  man- 
ners; and  to  the  Japanese,  that  the  Americans  were  not 
“barbarians.”  Receiving  such  distinguished  attention 
and  kindness,  they  felt  ashamed,  so  they  confessed  aft- 
erwards, of  the  haughtiness  and  cruelty  which  they  had 
inflicted  upon  foreigners  that  had  come  to  their  country. 

In  Japan,  discontent  and  turmoil  continued.  The 
years  1862-64  are  memorable  for  the  murderous  attacks 
upon  foreigners.  It  seems  that  the  anti- Shogun  party 
(the  Imperialists)  were  determined,  if  possible,  to  bring 
on  war  between  the  Shogun’s  government  and  the  for- 
eign powers,  and  what  increased  the  embarrassment  of 
the  Shogun’s  ministers  was  the  loss  of  Mr.  Harris,  who 


308 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


had  become  their  trusted  counselor  and  educator  in  ev- 
erything pertaining  to  foreign  affairs.  Though  they  ad- 
dressed a formal  letter  to  President  Lincoln,  requesting 
that  Mr.  Harris’s  resignation  be  not  accepted,  he  felt 
compelled  to  return  to  the  United  States,  and  they  with 
great  regret  saw  him  leave  their  country.  In  these  stormy 
times,  and  sailing  upon  unknown  seas,  they  felt  the  need 
of  such  a foreign  friend  and  counselor.  The  Hon.  Rob- 
ert H.  Pruyn  came  as  his  successor,  in  April,  1862.  Ev- 
ery fresh  outbreak  upon  the  foreigners,  the  Shogun’s 
government  being  powerless  to  prevent  it,  was  taken  as 
a positive  proof  of  the  folly  and  danger  of  opening  the 
country;  and  hence  a strong  party,  led  by  the  powerful 
Daimyos  of  Choshu  and  Satsuma,  gathered  around  the 
Emperor  as  against  the  Shogun.  Even  the  marriage  of 
the  young  Shogun  to  the  Emperor’s  sister  did  not  heal 
the  breach. 

Meanwhile  the  Mikado  requested  an  assembly  of  Dai- 
myos  at  Yedo  for  a conference  with  the  Shogun  and  his 
ministers,  one  of  his  own  court  nobles  being  present  as 
his  representative.  This  assembly  brought  no  help  to 
the  Shogun  in  his  troubles. 

Shimadzu,  lord  of  Satsuma,  having  gone  on  to  Yedo, 
where  he  was  received  coolly,  and  failing  to  influence 
the  Shogun  to  expel  the  foreigners,  started  back  by  the 
great  national  road  from  Yedo  to  Kioto.  When  he  was 
near  the  newly  opened  treaty  port  of  Yokohama,  he  and 
his  train  were  met  by  a party  of  Englishmen  who  were 
out  for  a ride,  one  C.  L.  Richardson  being  the  leader. 
Refusing  to  turn  aside  from  the  road,  or  even  to  salute 
the  Daimyo,  as  had  been  the  custom  for  generations,  and 
though  besought  by  his  companions  to  turn  back,  Rich- 
ardson rashly  pushed  forward,  and  when  opposite  the 
Daimyo’s  palanquin  was  set  upon  by  his  guard  and  mor- 


ATTACKS  UPON  FOREIGNERS. 


309 


tally  wounded.  The  rest  escaped.  The  British  govern- 
ment demanded  an  indemnity  of  $300,000  of  the  Shogun, 
$100,000  of  Satsuma,  and  the  surrender  of  the  slayers. 
This  was  refused,  and  the  matter  was  referred  to  Lon- 
don. 

Meanwhile,  as  early  as  the  spring  of  1863,  another 
assembly  of  Daimyos  had  taken  place  at  Kioto,  and  the 
Shogun  himself,  for  the  first  time  in  over  two  hundred 
years,  had  proceeded  to  Kioto  to  confer  with  the  Em- 
peror. The  peaceful  suburbs  of  the  imperial  capital 
once  more  clanked  with  troops  and  arms,  as  if  for  war. 
An  edict  from  the  Mikado  was  read  out  before  this  as- 
sembly, saying  it  was  his  will  that  the  obnoxious  “ bar- 
barians ” be  brushed  out , and  the  Shogun’s  Prime  Minis- 
ter was  to  fix  the  day.  The  Mikado  now  proposed  to 
make  a pilgrimage  with  the  Shogun  to  the  temple  of  the 
war  god  Hachiman,  where  he  should  deliver  to  him 
O jin’s  sword,  to  use  in  the  holy  war  of  driving  out  the 
miserable  4 4 barbarians.  ” But  the  Shogun  feigned  being 
ill,  and  the  holy  war  was  never  undertaken.  But  every- 
where the  Samurai  were  stirring;  Kioto  was  increas- 
ing, and  Yedo  was  decreasing , and  the  anti-foreign  side 
was  growing  more  determined  against  the  Shogun’s 
policy  of  opening  the  country.  Now  that  the  Mikado 
had  said,  “Brush  away  the  barbarians /”  it  is  loyal  to 
do  so. 

The  American  legation  was.  attacked  and  burned,  the 
Minister,  Mr.  Pruyn,  barely  escaping.  Fleeing  to  a 
temple,  he  was  warned  of  another  attack,  and  had  to 
escape  by  going  on  board  a Japanese  vessel,  that  brought 
him  to  Yokohama.  The  United  States  Consul  and  the 
missionaries  were  likewise  warned  to  flee  for  their  lives. 
An  American  merchant  was  threatened  by  his  own 
Japanese  clerks  and  servants.  A Mr.  Stearns  was  at- 


310 


japax:  country,  court,  people. 


tacked  and  robbed,  and  Mr.  Robertson  was  seized  while 
sick  in  bed,  and  carried  off  to  a swamp. 

Twice  even  the  Shogun’s  castle  was  destroyed  by  fire, 
and  a Japanese  was  assassinated  merely  for  intimating 
that  the  foreign  powers  were  too  strong  for  Japan. 
Murderous  assaults  were  made  upon  the  British  subjects 
residing  in  the  treaty  port  of  Nagasaki;  a French  lieu- 
tenant was  assassinated  a little  afterwards,  and  two 
British  officers  were  murdered. 

The  Shogun’s  government  was  now  placed  between 
two  fires,  on  the  one  side  unable  to  give  protection  to 
the  foreigners  or  carry  out  the  treaties;  on  the  other 
side,  it  was  being  harassed  by  the  imperialists  under  the 
lead  of  the  powerful  Daimyos  of  Choshii  and  others. 

Speaking  of  Choshii  recalls  a coup  d’etat  planned  by 
the  Daimyo  of  that  powerful  clan.  According  to  the 
Oriental  fashion,  the  sovereign  is  first  seized,  and  then 
through  him  whatever  edicts  and  laws  they  desire  to  le- 
galize their  enterprise  are  issued.  Choshii  having  been  the 
rallying  ground  of  all  the  malcontents  in  the  land,  the 
Daimyo,  followed  by  a troop  of  Samurai  of  his  own 
province  and  ronin  of  other  provinces,  marched  up  to 
Kioto  and  in  collusion  with  several  of  the  court  nobles 
were  about  to  seize  the  Mikado,  but  the  Shogun’s  spies 
discovered  the  plot  and  the  Mikado  was  informed  in 
time.  In  great  anger  he  ordered  the  Choshu  leaders 
with  their  troops  to  leave  the  capital  and  never  again  to 
enter  its  precincts.  Thus  disgraced,  the  Choshu  peo- 
ple, with  seven  court  nobles,  had  to  retire  from  Kioto. 

In  the  summer  of  1864  Choshu,  having  been  greatly 
reenforced,  marched  again  on  Kioto,  intending  to  reen- 
ter and  take  their  old  position.  They  were  forbidden  to 
enter  the  city,  and  the  troops  of  Satsuma,  Aidzu,  and 
Echizen,  under  the  command  of  the  Regent,  were  there 


shogun’s  government  in  a turmoil. 


311 

and  put  themselves  in  readiness.  The  battle  was  at 
the  gates  and  in  the  streets,  and  the  greater  portion  of 
the  city  was  destroyed  by  fire.  The  Choshu  men  were 
overpowered,  though  they  fought  with  bravery.  A lit- 
tle after  this  battle  the  embassy  returned  from  Europe, 
the  second  one  sent  abroad,  making  the  astonishing  state- 
ment: “JVot  the  foreigners,  hut  we  are  the  barbarians .” 
This  was  traitorous  news,  but  the  Shogun’s  cause  was 
not  bettered.  The  Shogun  was  ordered  to  chastise 
Choshu,  which  he  attempted  to  do,  but  in  the  first  place 
Satsuma  refused  to  join  him,  and  the  /Shogun's  troops 
were  defeated  in  battle  with  the  Choshu  forces.  The 
Shogun  lost  prestige  by  his  defeat,  and  never  regained 
it.  Meanwhile  the  English  squadron  having  been  or- 
dered to  punish  the  Daimyo  of  Satsuma  for  the  murder 
of  Richardson,  sailed  around  to  Kagoshima,  Satsuma’s 
capital  of  180,000  souls,  and  opened  fire,  almost  destroy- 
ing the  city,  and  burned  the  Daimyo’s  three  new  ships, 
recently  bought.  This  opened  the  proud  Daimyo’s 
eyes  and  he  had  to  pay  the  full  indemnity  in  cash, 
and  see  his  batteries,  factories,  etc.,  destroyed;  but 
though  humbled  and  convinced  that  it  was  folly  to 
measure  arms  with  the  foreigners,  he  resolved  with 
the  characteristic  energy  and  courage  of  the  Kiushiu 
people  that  he  would  get  hold  of  the  secret  of  their 
power.  He  was  therefore  the  first  of  the  territorial  lords . 
to  send  students  to  Holland  to  study,  and  he  employed 
Europeans  to  teach  his  people  the  arts  and  arms  of 
modern  warfare. 

The  next  year  another  most  disastrous  affair  took 
place,  which  both  humbled  the  Daimyo  of  Choshu  and 
opened  his  eyes  also  to  the  true  situation  of  Japan  in 
the  presence  of  foreign  powers.  He  had  procured  from 
Holland  or  other  Western  country  some  war  ships 


312 


JAPAN' : COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


armed  and  drilled  his  Samurai  according  to  modern 
ways,  and  had  planted  his  batteries  upon  the  heights 
of  the  Shimonoseki  straits,  at  the  western  mouth  of  the 
Inland  Sea.  In  June  his  batteries  opened  fire  on  the 
United  States  ship  Pembroke;  the  next  month  a French 
man  of  war  was  seriously  injured;  and  still  later,  a 
Dutch  vessel  was  attacked.  Even  one  of  the  Shogun's 
ships  was  fired  upon . 

For  these  hostile  acts  the  United  States  warship  Wy- 
oming was  sent  to  bombard  the  place,  and  then  two 
French  vessels  went  and  did  the  same;  but  for  all  that, 
Choshu  was  still  defiant.  Wherefore  seeing  the  Sho- 
gun was  neither  able  to  keep  open  the  Inland  Sea  to 
foreign  ships,  nor  bring  the  Daimyo  to  a peaceful  tem- 
per of  mind,  the  foreign  powers  united  in  an  expedition 
consisting  of  seventeen  vessels,  and  went  to  pay  their 
respects  and  teach  Choshu  the  error  of  his  ways.  The 
attack  of  the  united  fleet,  British,  French,  Dutch,  and 
American — howbeit  the  Americans  had  only  one  steam 
vessel  which  had  been  chartered  for  the  purpose  of  fly- 
ing the  United  States  flag — was  made  on  the  5th  of  Sep- 
tember, 1864,  and  it  brought  the  Choshu  lord  into  abso- 
lute submission. 

The  foreign  ministers  then  called  a conference  with 
the  Shogun’s  foreign  minister  and  demanded  an  indem- 
nity of  three  million  dollars.  It  is  but  just  to  say  that 
this  sum  was  unnecessarily  heavy  and  unreasonable. 
The  Shogun  had  apologized  for  the  firing  upon  foreign 
ships,  and  it  was  perfectly  plain  that  in  the  disordered 
condition  of  affairs  he  was  unable  to  quell  his  unruly 
and  powerful  Daimyos.  It  is  therefore  with  gratifica- 
tion that  record  is  here  made  of  the  act  of  Congress  in 
1873,  by  which  our  share  of  the  indemnity,  $785,000, 
was  voluntarily  returned  to  Japan. 


THE  TREATIES  RATIFIED. 


313 

In  the  meantime  the  conflict  between  the  Shogun’s 
government  at  Yedo  and  the  Mikado’s  court  at  Kioto 
became  more  threatening.  Both  parties  were  now  con- 
vinced that  brushing  out  the  foreigners  was  no  easy 
thing.  The  powerful  Daimyos  of  Satsuma  and  Choshu 
had  learned  by  experience  the  folly  of  that  policy. 
The  southern  Daimyos  would  no  longer  render  alle- 
giance to  the  Shogun,  and  like  falling  stars  matters 
hastened  to  a crisis,  the  issue  being  which  should  be  su- 
preme, the  Mikado  or  the  Shogun.  Many  of  the  wisest 
men  saw  that,  under  the  changed  conditions  of  treaties 
and  trade  with  foreign  nations,  Japan  must  have  one 
head  and  not  two.  What  hastened  this  conflict  be- 
tween Yedo  and  Kioto  was  the  decision  of  the  foreign 
ministers  to  recognize  only  the  legal  head  and  sovereign 
of  the  nation,  and  to  demand  the  ratification  of  the 
treaties  by  the  Mikado.  Accordingly  Mr.  Pruyn,  the 
American,  and  the  other  ministers  proceeded  to  sea 
from  Yedo  to  Hiogo,  and  thence  opened  communica- 
tion with  Kioto,  urging  the  Mikado  to  ratify  the  trea- 
ties immediately.  In  November,  1865,  the  Mikado 
formally  ratified  the  treaties.  This  action  greatly 
strengthened  the  party  of  the  imperialists  against  the 
Shogun. 

Shortly  afterwards  the  young  Shogun  died  in  his  cas- 
tle at  Osaka.  His  successor,  under  the  title  of  Yoshin- 
obu,  took  the  reigns  of  government,  but  soon  found 
that  the  power  and  glory  of  the  Tokugawas  was  fad- 
ing away.  Besides  the  action  of  the  Daimyos  of  the 
South  and  Southwest  in  rallying  around  the  Mikado  as 
against  the  Shogun,  and  besides  the  recent  action  of 
the  foreign  ministers  in  seeking  the  Mikado’s  sanction 
of  the  treaties,  thus  proclaiming  to  the  whole  Japanese 
world  that  he  alone  was  the  lawful  sovereign,  there 


314 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


was  a third  powerful  source  of  influence  destructive  of 
the  Shogunate  and  favoring  the  restoration  of  the  Mi- 
kado’s power.  Under  the  light  of  the  Dutch  learning, 
some  of  the  brightest  scholars  of  the  nation  had  been 
studying  the  history  of  other  nations,  and  their  own. 
They  had  discovered  in  these  studies  that  in  the  early 
ages  their  nation  had  had  but  one  ruler,  the  Emperor, 
who  governed  in  his  own  person  and  authority;  that 
gradually  the  Shoguns  had  robbed  him  of  his  power, 
until  finally  they  pushed  him  aside  and  shut  him  up 
in  his  palace,  a shadowy  and  harmless,  but  sacred  figure, 
while  they  held  the  scepter  of  power  over  the  nation. 
These  scholar  patriots  united  their  voice  with  the  rest- 
ive Southern  Daimyos,  crying,  “Down  with  the  Sho- 
gun! up  with  the  Emperor!” 

We  have  spoken  of  the  death  of  the  Shogun;  the  be- 
ginning of  the  next  year  (1867)  saw  the  death  of  the 
Mikado.  He  died  of  smallpox,  a disease  that  the  low- 
est classes  die  of,  and  some  were  inclined  to  think  that 
this  disease  was  sent  upon  the  Emperor  as  a curse  from 
heaven  because  he  sanctioned  the  treaties  with  the  ‘ ‘ bar- 
barians.” In  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  the  Daimyo 
of  Tosa  sent  a remarkable  memorial  to  the  Shogun: 
“The  reason  why  Japan’s  affairs  do  not  go  straight  is, 
there  are  two  heads,  and  the  two  sets  of  eyes  and  ears 
turn  in  different  directions.  Your  Highness  should 
give  back  the  supreme  power  into  the  hands  of  the 
sovereign,  in  order  to  lay  the  foundations  upon- which 
Japan  may  take  its  place  as  the  equal  of  other  coun- 
tries.” The  Shogun,  upon  this  advice,  addressed  a 
letter  to  his  vassals,  proposing  to  resign  the  Shogun- 
ate and  give  back  the  supreme  power  into  the  hands 
of  the  imperial  court.  Though  none  of  his  great 
vassals  openly  opposed  it,  there  was  deep  discontent. 


WAR  OF  REVOLUTION. 


315 


In  November,  1867,  the  Shogun  sent  his  resignation  to 
the  Emperor.  It  was  accepted  in  solemn  form,  but  lie 
was  requested  to  continue  temporarily  the  administra- 
tion of  the  government,  excepting  what  pertained  to 
difficulties  with  the  Daimyos. 

IV.  War  of  Revolution  and  Restoration  (1868). 

Though  the  Shogun  had  thus  resigned,  his  vassal 
Daimyos  and  lords  of  Kwanto  and  the  North  were  by  no 
means  ready  to  see  the  old  and  honored  dynasty  of  the 
Tokugawas  fall  to  the  ground  in  such  a fashion,  and 
were  determined  to  uphold  the  power  of  the  Shogunate 
if  need  be  by  fighting.  In  Yedo  especially,  the  news 
threw  the  city  into  excitement.  They  could  not  believe 
it.  It  is  said  that  the  wavering  Shogun  soon  regretted 
his  resignation,  and  that  when  he  offered  to  give  up  the 
government  he  was  hoping  that  his  resignation  would 
not  be  accepted.  The  Mikado  had  accepted  his  resigna- 
tion, but  requested  him  to  continue  the  administration 
of  affairs  temporarily.  But  certain  astute  personages 
of  the  Mikado’s  court,  together  with  leaders  from  among 
the  Southern  Daimyos,  who  had  labored  so  long  for  the 
overthrow  of  the  Tokugawa  rule,  were  not  willing  to 
wait.  They  determined  upon  a coup  d’etat,  by  which  to 
make  sure  of  the  situation  against  the  Shogun  and  his 
supporters.  Accordingly,  with  sudden  surprise  to  the 
Shogun,  who  was  at  that  time  staying  in  his  Kioto  cas- 
tle, they  seized  the  palace  gates,  dismissed  the  Aidzu 
clan,  who  had  always  guarded  them  and  who  were  loyal 
to  the  Shogun,  and  replaced  them  by  troops  of  Satsuma 
and  other  Southern  clans.  The  court  nobles  favorable 
to  the  Shogun’s  cause  were  dismissed,  and  by  a so-called 
edict  the  offices  of  Kwambaku  and  Shogun  were  abol- 
ished. A provisional  government  was  forthwith  planned, 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


316 

with  suitable  men  for  the  several  departments.  A de- 
cree was  issued  declaring  that  henceforth  the  govern- 
ment of  the  country  was  solely  in  the  hands  of  the  im- 
perial court.  It  was  a revolution.  One  of  the  first  acts 
of  the  new  government  was  the  recall  of  the  Choshu 
Daimyo  and  the  banished  court  nobles  who  had  in  1863 
been  expelled  from  Kioto;  the  Choshu  troops  were  also 
given  an  honored  place  with  the  royalist  clans  in  guard- 
ing the  imperial  palace.  But  who  is  the  new  Emperor? 
He  has  not  yet  emerged  before  the  public,  but  will  do 
so  soon.  The  Shogun  offended  and  the  Aidzu  and  other 
troops  devoted  to  him  being  angered,  he  withdrew  by 
night  from  Kioto  into  his  Osaka  castle,  forty  miles  away. 

The  situation  was  now  critical;  civil  war  was  impend- 
ing. The  ex-Shogun,  as  we  henceforth  name  him,  hav- 
ing been  invited  to  come  back  to  Kioto  with  the  prom- 
ise that  he  shall  be  treated  with  honor,  was  suspicious 
of  a plot  against  him,  and  resolved  to  proceed  writh  a 
body  of  troops  and  deliver  the  young  Emperor  from  his 
advisers.  But  by  order  of  the  court  he  was  declared  a 
traitor  and  forbidden  to  enter  the  city.  The  “loyal” 
army  marched  out  against  him,  met  him  at  Fushimi,  near 
Kioto,  and  the  civil  leads  first  battle  was  fought'.  The 
ex-Shogun  was  badly  beaten  and  retreated  back  to  Osa- 
ka castle,  and  thence  fled  by  sea  to  Yedo,  followed  later 
by  troops  of  the  Aidzu  and  other  clans.  Meanwhile 
the  foreign  Ministers  instructed  their  nationals  in  the 
treaty  ports  to  observe  strict  neutrality,  furnishing  arms 
to  neither  side. 

An  outbreak  upon  the  foreigners  in  Hyogo,  which  had 
just  been  opened,  was  led  by  a captain  of  Japanese 
troops.  A company  of  noncombatant  foreigners  were 
wantonly  fired  upon  and  stampeded.  The  new  govern- 
ment sent  an  envoy  to  wait  upon  the  foreign  ministers 


ENGLISH  MINISTER  ATTACKED. 


317 


at  Ilyogo,  and  to  declare  by  official  letter  that  the  Sho- 
gun had  resigned,  and  thenceforth  the  Emperor  would 
exercise  the  supreme  power,  and  had  established  a for- 
eign department  in  his  government;  and  therefore  that  all 
attacks  upon  foreigners  would  be  punished  and  the  trea- 
ties carried  out.  The  Japanese  captain  mentioned  above 
was  sentenced  to  Kara  Jdri  and  beheading.  This  letter, 
delivered  in  the  most  solemn  manner,  was  signed  by  the 
young  Emperor,  Mutsuhito,  being  the  first  time  that  the 
personal  name  of  an  Emperor  has  been  made  public.  As 
a proof  of  the  good  will  of  the  new  government  the 
foreign  Ministers  were  invited  to  visit  Kioto  and  be  re- 
ceived in  audience  by  the  young  Emperor.  England, 
France,  and  Holland  accepted.  But  when  Sir  Harry 
Parks,  the  English  minister,  with  his  suite,  was  pro- 
ceeding to  the  palace  a murderous  attack  was  made  upon 
him  in  the  streets  by  two  anti-foreign  Samurai.  The 
next  day  the  Emperor  was  visited  in  safety.  A little 
earlier  a French  officer  and  ten  sailors  were  murdered 
at  Sakai,  near  Osaka.  Three  days  later  the  murderers 
were  given  up  to  be  put  to  death,  and  when  eleven  had 
committed  harakiri  in  the  presence  of  the  French  offi- 
cer he  interposed  in  behalf  of  the  other  nine,  and  their 
lives  were  spared.  In  the  meantime,  the  court  having 
mobilized  an  army  and  the  Emperor  having  appointed 
his  uncle  commander  in  chief,  the  civil  war  shifts  to 
Yedo,  in  the  East. 

First,  the  Shogun’s  troops  burned  down  the  Satsuma 
Yashiki  in  Yedo,  occupied  by  some  Satsuma  Samurai. 
As  the  imperial  army  approached  the  Shogun  sought 
negotiations  and  agreed  to  evacuate  his  castle,  surrender 
his  ships  and  munitions  of  war,  and  retire  to  private  life 
at  Mito.  So,  leaving  the  capital  founded  by  Tokugawa 
Iyeyasu  and  made  famous  by  a long  and  powerful  rule, 


318 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


the  last  of  the  line  disappeared  from  the  field.  The 
Tokugawa  dynasty  of  Shoguns  thus  passed  into  history, 
never  to  live  or  flourish  again.  But  the  war  was  not 
ended.  The  last  of  the  Shoguns  left  Yedo,  but  his  sup- 
porters, in  all  more  than  twenty  Daimyos  of  Kwanto  and 
the  North,  refused  to  disband,  and  continued  the  strug- 
gle. On  July  4th  a battle  was  fought  in  the  temple 
grounds  of  Toyezan  (now  called  Uyeno  Park).  The 
rebels  were  defeated,  and  the  most  splendid  of  all  the 
Yedo  temples  was  totally  burned. 

Having  seized  the  high  priest  (an  imperial  prince) 
and  made  him  their  Emperor,  the  rebels  fled  northward 
to  Aidzu.  The  struggle  for  the  possession  of  the  chief 
towns  in  the  North  was  an  obstinate  one.  The  Northern 
braves  defended  their  castles  with  courage  and  fortitude, 
but  at  last  all  were  captured,  and  they  had  to  flee  to 
the  island  of  Yezo.  Meanwhile  Admiral  Enomoto, 
commanding  the  ex-Shogun’s  fleet,  and  refusing  to  sur- 
render it,  escaped  by  night  from  Yedo  Bay,  and  with 
eight  ships  sailed  to  Hakodate,  there  to  cooperate  with 
the  land  forces.  It  was  the  declared  purpose  of  the 
rebels  to  establish  in  Yezo  Island  a new  kingdom,  but, 
after  a fruitless  struggle  of  a year  and  a half,  Admiral 
Enomoto  surrendered  his  fleet,  and  the  civil  war  came  to 
an  end.  Be  it  said  to  the  credit  of  the  Emperor’s  gov- 
ernment, that  in  the  main  clemency  was  extended  to 
the  leaders  of  the  rebel  side.  For  example,  Enomoto 
was  afterwards  sent  as  Minister  to  St.  Petersburg.* 

Turning  back  to  the  events  of  the  new  imperial  court 
at  Kioto,  we  discover  that  a government  of  eight  de- 
partments had  been  organized,  including:  (1)  the  su- 

*One  exception  to  clemency  was  the  case  of  Kondo  Isami, 
who  was  brought  in  a cage  to  Yedo,  beheaded,  and  his  head 
sent  in  liquor  to  Kioto. 


THE  EMPEROR  BECOMES  ACTUAL  RULER. 


319 


preme  administration;  (2)  the  Shinto  religion;  (3)  for- 
eign affairs,  and  so  on.  Able  and  far-seeing  men  were 
behind  every  movement  in  the  new  order.  One  of 
them,  Okubo,  made  a novel  and  startling  proposition 
in  a memorial  addressed  to  the  throne.  It  was,  in 
brief,  that,  contrary  to  the  custom  of  his  ancestors,  the 
Emperor  should  come  forth  from  behind  the  screen,  and 
take  the  rule  of  the  country  into  his  own  hands,  sub- 
jecting all  his  court  and  government  to  his  personal  su- 
pervision; and  that  to  this  end  the  capital  and  court  be 
transferred  from  Kioto  to  Osaka.  Okubo  knew  how 
difficult  it  would  be  to  abandon  the  old  traditions  and 
set  aside  the  age-long  customs  of  the  puppet  Mikados 
if  the  young  Emperor  remained  in  the  old  capital  at 
Kioto.  Such  a proposal  in  former  times  would  have 
been  regarded  as  treason  and  would  have  cost  the  pro- 
poser his  life.  But  now  the  men  who  surround  the 
young  Emperor  breathe  the  freer  air  of  a new  life.  Oku- 
bo’s  plan  was  welcomed,  and,  after  discussion,  a change 
of  capital  was  decided  upon.  The  young  Emperor,  Mut- 
suhito,  sixteen  years  old,  came  in  person  before  the  coun- 
cil of  state,  court  nobles,  and  Daimyos,  and  in  their  pres- 
ence took  an  oath  (April  17,  1869)  as  actual  ruler,  prom- 
ising: (1)  That  a deliberative  assembly  shall  be  formed 
and  all  questions  decided  by  public  opinion;  (2)  that 
uncivilized  customs  of  former  times  shall  be  abandoned; 
(3)  justice  and  impartiality  according  to  nature  shall 
be  made  the  basis  of  action  ; (4)  intellect  and  learning 
throughout  the  world  shall  be  sought  for.  This  char- 
ter oath  is  the  basis  of  the  modern  constitution  of  Ja- 
pan. The  youthful  Emperor  standing  in  the  assembly 
of  the  court  and  the  Daimyos,  and  swearing  to  grant 
them  a representative  assembly,  and  that  the  uncivil- 
ized customs  of  Japan  shall  be  broken  away  from,  was 


320 


JAPAN  : COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


a tine  subject  for  a painting.  Of  course  it  is  not  to  be 
supposed  that  he  realized  the  full  meaning  of  the  words 
that  he  had  been  taught  to  use  by  his  counselors,  but 
they  evidently  knew  what  they  were  doing.  Follow- 
ing the  victorious  army,  the  young  Emperor  and  his 
court  bade  farewell  to  ancient  Kioto  in  Xovember,  1869, 
and  set  up  his'throne  in  Yedo,  his  new  capital,  changed 
to  Tokyo.  It  vxxs  the  Restoration . The  one  serious  mis- 
take— so  far  as  we  can  see,  the  only  mistake — which  the 
young  Emperor’s  counselors  made  at  that  critical  and 


EMPEROR  AND  EMPRESS  OF  JAPAN. 


revolutionary  time  was  the  hostile  position  taken  toward 
Christianity.  The  old  edict  of  the  Tokugawa  Shoguns 
against  Christianity  was  renewed,  as  follows:  “The 
wicked  sect  called  Christians  is  strictly  prohibited.  Sus- 
pected persons  shall  be  denounced  to  the  officials,  and  re- 
wards (for  the  information  given)  shall  be  distributed.” 
The  foreign  ministers  protested,  but  without  avail,  ex- 
cept that  the  words  “wicked  sect”  were  omitted.  The 
decree  was  issued  under  the  plea  that  universal  public 
sentiment  against  Christianity  strongly  demanded  it. 


OPPOSITION  TO  MISSIONARIES. 


321 


Just  the  year  previous  the  Japanese  authorities  were 
taken  with  surprise  by  discovering  a community  of 
Christians  a little  north  of  Nagasaki,  a remnant  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  that  had  not  been  extermi- 
nated. Notwithstanding  the  severe  laws  and  cruel 
punishments  carried  out  against  Christians  for  two 
hundred  years,  it  is  truly  astonishing  that  a commu- 
nity of  them  had  secretly  maintained  their  faith  in  a 
dim  way  and  handed  it  down  through  many  genera- 
tions. In  1868  the  imperial  government  ordered  the 
whole  community  where  the  Christians  lived,  number- 
ing three  thousand,  to  be  deported  into  exile  and  dis- 
tributed as  laborers  among  thirty-four  Daimyos  of  the 
land.  Kido  of  Choshu,  and  a leader  in  these  stirring 
times  of  the  War  of  the  Restoration,  was  sent  to  Na- 
gasaki to  superintend  the  deportation  of  the  condemned 
Christians.  The  English  Consul  at  Nagasaki  remon- 
strated, with  the  result  that  only  one  hundred  and 
twenty  harmless  Christians  were  sent  away  by  ship  to 
Kaga.  Kido  attempted  to  justify  this  barbarous  treat- 
ment by  accusing  the  missionaries  of  having  come  to 
Japan  to  tempt  the  people  to  violate  the  laws.  This 
was  probably  a natural  mistake  for  the  leaders  of  the 
Restoration  to  make,  but  it  was  very  unfortunate  that 
they  should  take  up  precisely  the  same  position  toward 
Christianity  as  the  Tokugwara  Shoguns,  whose  rule  was 
now  being  overthrown.  Though  such  a hostile  feeling 
toward  Christianity  was  a great  wrong  and  very  unwise, 
it  was  of  a piece  with  the  policy  of  the  new  imperialism 
of  the  restoration  in  attempting  to  make  the  Shinto  reli- 
gion the  state  religion,  the  only  religion  of  Japan,  and 
have  the  young  Emperor  recognized  as  the  divine  head 
both  of  religion  and  of  the  state.  The  young  Emperor’s 
advisers  would  have  him  launch  the  new  Japan  upon 
21 


322 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


the  great  stream  of  modern  enlightenment  and  repre- 
sentative government  in  the  old  ship  of  the  heathen  re- 
ligion— an  impossible  thing. 

V.  Christianity  Alain  Comes  In. 

For  the  facts  in  this  section  we  are  chiefly  indebted 
to  the  late  revered  Dr.  Guido  F.  Verbeck,  one  of  the 
pioneer  missionaries,  and  to  “Ritter’s  History  of  Prot- 
estant Missions  in  Japan.”  When,  in  1854,  it  became 
known  in  America  and  Great  Britain  that  Japan  had 
made  treaties  of  amity  and  peace  with  several  Western 
powers,  the  friends  of  missions  were  particularly  inter- 
ested in  the  event,  for  now  at  last  that  country  was 
again  to  be  opened  and  Christianity  to  carry  its  message 
of  light  and  help  to  the  millions  of  Japanese.  If  Chris- 
tianity brought  to  them  by  the  Roman  Catholics  in 
1549  had  been  so  successful,  and  native  converts  had 
shown  such  heroic  fidelity  to  the  cross  of  Jesus  in  time 
of  fiery  persecution,  what  might  not  now  be  hoped 
from  the  introduction  of  the  purer  Protestant  form  of 
the  Christian  religion? 

As  soon  as  permanent  residence  for  foreigners  in  the 
treaty  ports  was  secured,  which  was  not  until  1859, 
missionaries  were  sent  out  by  three  Protestant  bodies, 
the  Protestant  Episcopal,  the  United  Presbyterian,  and 
the  Dutch  Reformed,  all  from  the  United  States. 
Prior  to  this,  occasional  visits  had  been  made  by  mis- 
sionaries in  Shanghai,  China;  but  there  were  no  resident 
missionaries  until  1859.  The  next  year  the  American 
Baptists  sent  a missionary.  For  ten  years  these  four 
were  the  only  missions  represented  in  Japan. 

The  first  period,  from  1859  to  1872,  was  the  period  of 
persecution  and  imprisonment.  The  missionaries,  while 
untouched  by  the  violent  hand  of  the  rulers,  were  prac- 


THE  MISSIONARIES  PERSECUTED. 


3^3 

tically  regarded  as  enemies  of  the  country,  “come  to 
tempt  the  people  to  violate  the  laws.”  As  we  have 
seen,  it  was  a time  of  political  turmoil  resulting  in  the 
overthow  of  the  Tokugawa  Shoguns  at  Yedo,  and  the 
restoration  of  the  Mikado  to  the  throne.  The  state  of 
the  country  was  peculiar,  and  often  dangerous.  The 
missionaries,  much  to  their  grief,  soon  found  they  were 
everywhere  regarded  with  suspicion;  and  their  inter- 
course with  natives,  even  within  the  “foreign  settle- 
ment” was  constantly  watched  by  government  spies. 
Indeed,  for  a period  of  four  years  after  their  arrival 
the  Shogun’s  government  frequently  sent  officials 
to  visit  the  missionaries,  as  if  making  a friendly 
call,  but  really  they  were  spies.  In  Yokohama  no 
teacher  could  be  secured  until  March,  1860,  and  he  was 
a government  spy.  A proposal  to  translate  the  Scrip- 
tures caused  him  to  withdraw  frightened.  Even  the 
mention  of  Christianity  would  cause  an  involuntary 
throwing  of  the  hand  to  the  throat,  as  a sign  that  the 
Japanese  would  be  beheaded  if  they  should  give  ear  to 
such  things.  There  was  at  that  time  a system  of  in- 
formers and  spies  in  full  swing  throughout  the  country; 
there  was  no  mutual  confidence  between  man  and  man, 
and  hence  the  natives  were  all  the  more  inaccessible  to 
the  missionaries  respecting  the  one  and  only  cause  for 
which  they  had  come. 

There  was  naturally  much  that  was  perplexing,  dis- 
couraging, and  dangerous  to  life  and  limb.  Believing 
that  the  missionaries  had  come  to  seduce  them  from 
their  loyalty  to  the  god-country  (Japan),  and  to  corrupt 
their  morals  generally,  it  was  a time  of  murderous  at- 
tacks, without  either  warning  or  protection.  The  man 
who  killed  a foreigner  was  a patriot,  the  more  so  if  he 
put  an  end  to  a teacher  of  the  “wicked  sect,”  a mission- 


324 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


ary.  The  missionaries  dared  not,  at  the  risk  of  their 
lives,  set  their  feet  beyond  the  limits  of  the  treaty  settle- 
ment. It  was  contrary  to  treaty  regulations,  which  the 
missionaries  could  not  wish  to  disregard;  but  even  had 
it  been  lawful,  it  would  have  been  extremely  perilous, 
because  the  first  group  of  two-sworded  Samurai  the  mis- 
sionary would  meet  would  be  after  cutting  him  to 
pieces  as  if  they  were  slashing  a dog.  These  swagger- 
ing Samurai  were  particularly  hostile  to  foreigners,  and 
doubly  so  toward  the  missionary,  and  eager  to  slake  the 
thirst  of  their  4 4 rollicking  blades  ” in  his  blood.  While 
the  common  people  feared  the  missionaries,  the  ruling 
class  hated  them,  nor  was  it  abated,  as  might  have  been 
hoped,  when  the  Shogun’s  government  was  replaced  by 
the  restoration  of  the  Emperor.  For,  as  already  seen,  one 
of  the  first  acts  of  the  Emperor  was  the  renewal  of  the 
edict  against  Christianity  making  it  a crime  along  with 
murder,  arson,  etc.  The  persecution  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics from  1869  to  1872,  as  previously  recorded,  needs  no 
further  comment  here;  it  simply  proves  that  the  new  ruler 
and  his  advisers  were  in  dead  earnest  when  they  issued 
that  edict.  44  In  fact,”  says  Dr.  Verbeck,  than  whom 
there  is  no  more  reliable  witness,  for  he  was*  on  the 
ground  at  the  time,  44  even  late  in  this  period  Christian- 
ity was  regarded  in  some  communities  with  intense 
hatred  and  fear,  and  the  Joi  (“barbarian  expelling  ”)  rage 
was  at  its  height.”  A few  examples  will  suffice.  Mr. 
Satow,  now  the  Hon.  British  Ambassador  to  Japan,  and 
two  or  three  other  foreigners  went  up  to  Yedo  in  1869, 
and  as  they  walked  through  the  city  they  met  a number 
of  44  rollicking  blades”  and  angry  scowls,  but,  being  at- 
tended by  an  armed  guard,  they  were  not  attacked. 
Mr.  Y erbeek,  shut  up  in  the  school  for  so  long  without 
air  and  exercise,  felt  that  he  must  get  out,  and  though 


PERSECUTION  OF  THE  CHRISTIANS.  825 

he  was  accompanied  by  two  of  liis  students,  who  were 
armed  with  two  swords,  being  advised  to  do  so,  he 
called  to  go  with  him  four  armed  guards,  instead  of  the 
two  usually  alloted  to  a foreigner  when  he  ventures  to 
go  out.  On  the  way  he  met  a number  of  those  “rol- 
licking blades,”  and  felt  a sense  of  relief  when  once 
safe  at  home  again. 

In  1868  a young  Buddhist  priest,  baptized  at  Naga- 
saki, was  afterwards  cast  into  prison,  when  I)r.  Ver- 
beck  went  away  to  live  in  the  North,  and  endured  much 
suffering  in  various  prisons  for  live  years. 

At  a later  date  when  inquiry  was  made  of  the  Gov- 
ernor of  Kobe  whether  a native  bookseller  would  be  al- 
lowed to  sell  the  English  Bible,  the  reply  was  that  any 
Japanese  bookseller  knowingly  selling  the  Bible  would 
have  to  go  to  prison.  Showing  what  native  believers 
had  to  endure  in  some  parts,  as  late  as  1871,  the  story 
of  Mr.  O.  II.  Gulick’s  teacher  at  Kobe  fully  illustrates. 
In  the  spring  of  that  year  the  teacher  and  his  wife  were 
arrested  at  the  dead  of  night  and  thrown  into  prison. 
His  only  crime  was  that  he  had  been  an  earnest  student 
of  the  Bible  and  had  expressed  a desire  to  be  baptized. 
His  wife  was  not  then  regarded  as  a Christian.  Every 
effort  was  made  to  secure  his  release,  both  by  missiona- 
ries and  the  American  Consul  at  Kobe.  To  the  mis- 
sionaries the  governor  frankly  stated  that  if  the  man 
had  received  baptism  there  was  no  possibility  of  his  es- 
caping the  death  penalty;  if  he  had  not  been  baptized, 
his  life  might  be  spared.  Where  the  unfortunate  man 
had  been  imprisoned  could  not  be  discovered  until  some 
time  afterwards,  when  it  transpired  that,  not  being  able 
to  withstand  the  miseries  of  his  condition,  he  died  in 
prison  in  Kioto  in  1872. 

In  1869  one  of  the  imperial  Councilors  was  assas- 


326 


japan:  country,  court, 


PEOPLE. 


sinated  in  Kioto  because  he  was  suspected  of  being  in- 
clined toward  the  ‘ ‘ wicked  opinions  ” — that  is,  Christian- 
ity. It  is  on  record  that  certain  Christian  diplomats 
were  urging  upon  a high  official  of  the  Japanese  gov- 
ernment the  stopping  of  the  persecution  of  Christians. 
He  remarked  to  them  in  reply  that  Christianity  would 
be  opposed  like  an  invading  army.  It  seems  that  the 
advisers  of  the  government  wTere  laboring  under  the 
gross  misconception  that  the  Protestant  religion,  no  less 
than  the  Roman  Catholic,  would  undermine  the  throne; 
and  how  could  the  Emperor  allow  the  foundation  of  his 
throne  to  thus  be  undermined  by  the  wicked  foreign  re- 
ligion? It  has  been  recorded  that  the  governor  of  Yo- 
kohama forbade  the  people  going  to  Dr.  Hepburn’s  free 
dispensary  because  so  many  were  flocking  to  him  for 
relief  from  their  ailments.  With  these  facts  before  us, 
was  ever  a field  so  unpromising?  When  the  profession 
of  Christian  faith  is  proclaimed  a crime  to  be  punished 
with  death  by  the  rulers  of  the  land;  when  the  lower 
classes  fear,  and  the  upper  classes  cordially  hate,  the 
missionaries;  when  they  themselves  are  shut  up,  as  it 
were,  in  the  narrow  limits  of  the  foreign  concessions — 
what  could  the  missionaries  do?  Some  of  the  Churches 
in  America,  which  had  been  so  forward  in  sendirtg  out 
the  first  missionaries  to  Japan,  began  now  to  think  that 
a mistake  had  been  made,  and  impatiently  wrote  to 
them,  asking:  “What  are  you  doing?” 

There  were  two  things,  and  only  two,  which  the  mis- 
sionaries cOuld  do  under  such  trying  circumstances:  win 
the  confidence  of  the  Japanese,  and  master  their  lan- 
guage. By  living  forth  the  teachings  of  their  own 
Master  and  by  diligent  study  of  the  language  they  were 
sure  of  winning,  finally,  access  to  the  ear  and  heart  of 
the  nation. 


GROSS  IMMORALITY. 


327 


But  as  to  the  mastery  of  the  language,  unfortunately 
there  was  not  a single  Japanese  who  knew  how  to  im- 
part it  to  a foreigner.*  The  Japanese  had  never  made 
a grammar  of  their  own  language,  and  knew  little  or 
nothing  about  the  scientific  study  of  it,  and  of  course 
there  was  no  Japanese-English  dictionary,  no  manual  nor 
vocabularies.  It  was  left  to  the  missionary  and  consu- 
lar bodies  in  Japan  to  make  their  own  tools,  the  gram- 
mars, manuals,  and  dictionaries,  and  so  for  their  diffi- 
cult work  they  must  build  the  road,  bridges  and  all, 
as  they  proceed. 

Respecting  the  religious  and  moral  condition  of  the 
nation,  it  was  deplorable.  The  minds  of  the  common 
people  were  exclusively  under  the  sway  of  Buddhism. 
The  upper  classes  were  more  or  less  influenced  by  Con- 
fucianism; some  of  them  affected  a kind  of  Confucian 
skepticism  toward  religion.  Shintoism  had  little  or  no 
religious  influence.  After  the  restoration  Buddhism  was 
disestablished,  and  the  effort  made  to  make  Shintoism 
the  national  religion,  with  the  Emperor  as  the  divine  and 
recognized  head.  The  revenues  of  the  government  were 
withdrawn  from  the  Buddhist  priests  and  temples,  and 
men  of  rank  were  forbidden  to  enter  the  Buddhist 
priesthood;  many  of  their  temples  were  “ cleansed” 
and  turned  over  to  the  Shinto  priests.  The  Buddhist 
priests  had  for  the  most  part  been  corrupt,  lazy,  and  ig- 
norant. And  while  there  was  little  in  the  outward  prac- 
tice of  Japanese  paganism  to  shock  a foreigner  by  its 
cruelty  or  atrocity,  nothing  like  the  rites  of  the  suttee 
or  Juggernaut  in  India,  newcomers  fresh  from  Ameri- 
ca and  Europe  wei'e  shocked  by  the  gross  immorality  of 
the  people.  Dr.  Verbeck  says  touching  this  matter:  “ In 

*Even  to  this  day  very  few  Japanese  ever  get  the  knack  of 
teaching  their  own  language  to  foreigners. 


328 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


certain  directions  the  most  astounding  moral  callousness 
and  blindness  were  evinced.  The  general  moral  degen- 
eracy of  the  people  manifested  itself  most  conspicuous- 
ly in  two  features:  in  the  absence  of  truthfulness,  and 
in  a general  ignorance  of  the  commonest  morals  concern- 
ing the  relations  of  the  sexes.”  Many  painful  and  dis- 
gusting spectacles  were  unavoidably  witnessed  by  many 
older  missionaries  in  the  streets,  shops,  and  by  the  way- 
side. 

The  two  things  named  above,  which  the  mission- 
aries were  to  do — namely,  to  live  according  to  the 
spirit  and  precepts  of  their  Master,  and  to  learn  the  diffi- 
cult language,  did  not  fail,  could  not  fail  to  break  down 
in  the  end  the  miserable  prejudices  and  fears  of  the  peo- 
ple and  rulers,  and  in  some  measure  win  their  confi- 
dence. 

For  many  years  the  missionaries  could  do  no  direct 
evangelizing,  but  it  was  a symptom  of  the  beginning  of 
toleration  when  the  Shogun’s  government  erected  ex- 
tensive buildings  in  Yedo  where  hundreds  of  young 
men  of  the  upper  class  were  to  be  taught  English  and 
French,  and  requested  the  missionaries  to  take  charge. 
It  certainly  meant  a good  deal  when  the  Prince  of  Hi- 
zen,  before  the  revolution,  and  other  princes  and  gov- 
ernors after  the  revolution,  engaged  Drs.  Verbeck  and 
Brown,  Capt.  James,  and  Prof.  Griffis  to  take  charge 
of  their  newly  formed  schools  for  teaching  to  Japanese 
young  men  of  rank  the  foreign  learning  and  the  Eng- 
lish language. 

But  how  strong  the  opposition  to  the  Christian  reli- 
gion had  been  is  seen  by  the  fact  that,  for  the  first 
twelve  years  from  1859,  the  missionaries  had  baptized 
only  five  Japanese  in  the  south  and  five  in  the  north 
— twelve  years,  and  only  ten  converts! 


UNFRIENDLY  EDICTS  REMOVED. 


329 


The  very  first  to  receive  Christian  baptism  was  Yano 
Riu,  who  was  Rev.  Dr.  Ballagh’s  personal  teacher. 
Two  others  were  baptized  by  Dr.  Verbeck,  young  men 
of  rank  of  Hizen  Province.  They  had  been  members  of 
a class  of  live,  who  were  studying  the  Bible  and  Chris- 
tian books  at  a distance  of  two  days’  travel!  Not  being 
permitted  to  visit  the  missionary,  they  sent  a messenger 
to  carry  their  questions  and  to  bring  answers,  and  thus 
their  hearts  were  opened  to  receive  the  truth  and  they 
finally  sought  baptism. 

The  public  edicts  of  the  government  against  Chris- 
tianity were  taken  down  the  thirteenth  year  after  the 
coming  of  the  missionaries.  Doubtless  political  reasons 
had  something  to  do  with  the  removal  of  those  edict 
boards.  For  instance,  the  Hon.  De  Long,  our  American 
Minister  to  Japan,  gave  warning  to  the  Prime  Minis- 
ter, Prince  Iwakura,  that  the  friendly  relations  of  the 
United  States  government  would  be  affected  by  the 
official  persecution  of  those  who  listened  to  Christian 
teaching.  In  1871  Prince  Iwakura  and  a score  of  oth- 
er high  officials  and  leaders  in  the  new  government 
went  abroad  as  an  embassy  to  visit  the  capitals  of  the 
W estern  Powers  to  persuade  those  governments  to  repeal 
the  extraterritorial  clause  * in  their  treaties  with  Japan; 
but  in  their  interview  with  President  Grant’s  Secretary 
of  State,  in  Washington,  the  embassy  was  confronted 
with  the  story  of  Japanese  being  thrown  into  pris- 
on because  they  were  inclined  to  hear  Christian  teach- 
ing, and  were  made  to  understand  that  the  enforcing 
of  those  edicts  by  the  Japanese  rulers  could  not  be 

* By  the  extraterritorial  clause,  the  trial  and  punishment 
of  foreigners  residing  in  the  open  ports  of  Japan  were  not 
permitted  to  the  native  magistrates,  but  reserved  to  the  for- 
eign consuls  stationed  there. 


330 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


looked  upon  with  indifference  by  the  United  States 
government.  The  Prince,  it  is  said,  promptly  informed 
his  government,  and  earnestly  advised  the  immediate  re- 
moval of  the  edicts  from  the  public  notice  boards.  In 
1872  their  removal  took  place,  quietly,  silently. 

No  doubt,  too,  the  gentlemen  composing  that  famous 
embassy,  being  sagacious  and  observant  men,  were 
deeply  impressed  with  the  wide  difference  in  the  civ- 
ilization of  the  nations  of  Christendom  and  that  of  their 
own  Japan;  and  when  they  returned,  in  1873,  having 
failed  to  convince  a single  government  that  they  were 
competent  to  take  charge  of  foreigners,  they  may  not 
have  said  in  words,  “Not  the  foreigners,  but  we  are 
the  barbarians,”  but  they  probably  felt  it  to  be  true. 
However  this  may  have  been,  without  doubt  the  mis- 
sionaries were  the  chief  cause  of  softening  the  bitter 
prejudices  of  the  Japanese.  Before  that  embassy  was 
sent  abroad  the  quiet,  harmless,  humane,  and  enlight- 
ened life  of  the  missionaries  had  begun  to  attract  remark. 
There  was  a marked  increase  about  that  time  in  the  num- 
ber of  young  Japanese  of  the  upper  classes  who  came 
seeking  instruction  from  the  missionaries. 

The  first  organized  church  in  Japan  was  indeed  like  a 
grain  of  mustard  seed  for  size.  In  1872,  thirteen  years 
after  the  coming  of  the  first  missionaries,  the  first  Prot- 
estant Christian  church  was  organized,  consisting  of  only 
twelve  members.  It  was  in  the  foreign  concession  at  Yo- 
kohama, and  under  protection  of  the  American  flag. 

“The  Japanese  Church  was  born  in  prayer.”  At 
Christmas,  1871,  a few  English-speaking  residents  be- 
gan holding  prayer  meetings  in  Yokohama.  Some 
Japanese  students,  partly  out  of  deference  to  their 
teachers  and  partly  from  curiosity,  also  attended. 
Yet  even  a short  time  before,  one  of  them  had  asked 


GENERAL  GOOD  RESULTS. 


331 

Rev.  Dr.  Ballagh  wliat  he  must  do  to  get  a new  heart. 
During  the  week  of  prayer,  in  1872,  these  prayer  meet- 
ings were  held  daily,  and,  as  the  Japanese  were  evi- 
dently interested,  they  were  continued  for  two  months. 
At  the  opening  of  each  meeting  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles was  read  in  course  with  the  Japanese,  and  trans- 
lated into  their  tongue.  Soon  a few  of  the  Japanese 
took  part  in  prayer.  After  a week  or  two  longer  they 
began  to  pray  with  great  earnestness,  even  with  tears, 
beseeching  God  to  give  his  Spirit  to  Japan  as  to  the 
early  Church  and  the  people  that  gathered  to  hear  the 
apostles.  Captains  of  English  and  of  American  men- 
of-war  were  present  and  were  profoundly  impressed. 

It  was  as  the  fruit  of  these  prayer  meetings  and  of  the 
reading  of  the  Book  of  the  Acts,  the  first  church  was 
organized.  It  was  organized  after  the  Presbyterian 
order,  the  pastor  chosen  being  Missionary  Ballagh,  the 
elder  and  deacon  being  two  older  Japanese.  The 
church  was  named  the  “Church  of  Christ  in  Japan.” 
The  creed  was  very  short  and  simple. 

Other  results  of  this  period  are  briefly:  the  publica- 
tion of  Dr.  Hepburn’s  Japanese-English  Dictionary 
(1867),  next  to  the  Bible  the  best  book  for  the  mission 
cause;  and  much  dispensary  work  by  the  same  man, 
great  numbers  of  Japanese  flocking  to  him  for  medi- 
cine and  treatment;  the  starting  of  small  classes  for 
the  study  of  English  in  the  missionaries’  houses;  the 
small  beginning  of  what  afterwards  became  a girls’ 
seminary  in  Yokohama,  and  a missionary  school  on  a 
very  small  scale  in  Tokyo;  the  circulation  of  Chris- 
tian books  in  Chinese,  this  not  being  forbidden;  and  the 
building  of  Christian  union  churches  in  the  foreign 
concessions  of  the  treaty  ports.  In  this  enterprise  the 
missionaries  took  active  part.  The  union  church  in 


332 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


Yokohama  stands  upon  the  site  of  the  temporary 
treaty  house  in  which  Commodore  Perry  made  the  first 
treaty.  Toward  the  erection  of  that  comely  house  of 
worship  the  Hon.  Townsend  Harris  made  a contribu- 
tion of  $1,000  on  leaving  Japan.  Dr.  Verbeck  and  one 
or  two  others  were  engaged  in  teaching  a part  of  every 
day  in  the  Kaisei  Gakko,  in  Tokyo,  which  afterwards 
grew  into  the  present  Imperial  University.  One  direct 
result  of  the  missionary  influence  and  example  was  to 
cause  the  Japanese  to  feel  how  backward  and  defective 
their  own  system  of  education  was.  Indeed,  we  shall 
see  that  the  indirect  influences  of  the  foreign  mission- 
aries were  felt  in  many  different  directions. 


IMPERIAL  CRESTS. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  NEW  JAPAN. 

Ritter  says:  “ Most  of  the  important  turning  points 
in  the  history  of  Protestant  missions  in  Japan  stand  in 
close  connection  with  certain  changes  in  the  political 
life  of  the  country.”  This  is  only  what  we  should  ex- 
pect, for  the  influence  of  missions  upon  diplomacy, 
upon  commerce,  and  upon  the  education  of  a nation  is 
undoubtedly  great.  Christian  missions  in  pagan  or  pa- 
pal lands  is  both  deeper  and  broader  than  some  people 
have  thought.  The  second  jieriod  of  missions  in  Japan 
begins  from  1872  and  ends  with  1889,  but  this  period 
answers  so  exactly  to  a corresponding  division  in  the 
political  history  that  we  shall  have  to  treat  the  two 
series  of  political  and  missionary  events  somewhat  to- 
gether. 

I.  Laying  New  Foundations — New  State. 

A most  important  event  at  the  very  beginning  of  this 
period  was  the  return  of  Prince  Iwakura’s  famous  em- 
bassy from  a tour  around  the  world.  (See  p.  329.) 
Failing  utterly  to  convince  the  rulers  of  the  Western 
nations  that  Japan  was  yet  qualified  to  take  charge  of 
foreigners,  and  having  seen  with  their  own  eyes  the 
advanced  civilization,  power,  and  progress  of  Europe, 
they  were  too  sagacious  not  to  ask  themselves  the  rea- 
son why.  They  must  have  realized  that  their  own  Ja- 
pan had  been  a Rip  Van  Winkle,  with  China  and  oth- 
ers, sleeping  in  ignorant  security  for  generations,  while 
the  Christian  nations  had  gone  far  in  advance  on  the 

(333) 


334 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 

road  of  civilization.  These  gentlemen  on  their  return 
took  again  high  position  in  the  government  and  court, 
and  must  have  exerted  a powerful  influence  in  favor  of 
reform  and  progress.  This  desire  to  “catch  up”  led  the 
leaders  of  the  new  Japan  to  determined  and  sometimes 
feverish  efforts  to  push  their  nation  into  the  stream  of 
modern  progress.  That  mistakes  were  occasionaly  made 
was  to  he  expected.  A new  pilot  with  a new  boat  sail- 
ing through  unmap ped  straits  and  channels  is  very 
likely  to  run  her  upon  the  shallows  or  against  the  rocks 
on  one  side  or  the  other. 

W e omitted  to  state  earlier  that  the  young  Emperor, 
as  soon  as  restored  to  the  throne  of  his  ancestors,  at- 
tempted to  secure  a kind  of  national  assembly  in  ac- 
cordance with  his  charter  oath.  An  assembly  was 
called  of  men  representing  each  clan,  and  chosen  by 
the  Daimyos,  and  great  hopes  were  set  upon  the  useful- 
ness of  such  a body.  Its  function  was  to  deliberate 
upon  the  important  affairs  and  problems  that  now  con- 
fronted the  new  government,  and  to  give  advice  to  the 
Emperor.  But  it  proved  a failure.  The  members  of  it 
were  too  conservative,  in  other  words,  too  narrow  and 
ignorant  for  the  new  times.  Like  old  wine  skins,  un- 
suited to  put  the  new  wine  in,  they  had  to  be  set  aside 
after  a few  months. 

Still  another  remarkable  political  event  in  Chinese 
history  took  place  early  in  the  period  under  consid- 
eration. It  was  the  abolition  of  feudalism.  Since 
the  Shogunate  had  been  overthrown  the  whole  mili- 
tary system  of  feudalism,  existing  for  nearly  eight 
hundred  years,  was  naturally  weakened,  and  only  one 
thing  more  was  needed  to  end  it,  the  surrender  on 
the  part  of  the  Daimyos  of  their  feudal  possessions 
and  rights  to  the  new  Emperor.  Such  gifted  and  far- 


FEUDALISM  ABOLISHED. 


335 

sighted  statesmen  as  Kido  and  Okubo  were  convinced 
that  this  was  necessary  to  the  successful  carrying  out 
of  the  new  order.  And  let  it  be  recorded  to  the  credit 
of  the  most  of  the  Daimyos  that  they  voluntarily  laid 
at  the  foot  of  the  imperial  throne  their  fiefs  and  hered- 
itary privileges.  That  was  a notable  paper  in  jiolitical 
history,  the  memorial  presented  to  the  Emperor  by  the 
great  Daimyos  of  Choshu,  Satsuma,  Tosa,  Hizen,  Kaga, 
and  others  afterwards  (numbering  in  all  two  hundred 
and  forty),  offering  to  their  sovereign  the  lists  of  their 


LEADING  MEN  OF  NEW  JAPAN. 


men  and  lands.  It  was  written  by  Kido,  who  had  been 
so  prominent  in  the  revolution,  and  gives,  says  Mur- 
ray, supreme  evidence  of  his  learning  and  statesman- 
ship. With  lofty  eloquence  the  memorial  exclaims: 
“The  place  where  we  live  is  the  Emperor’s  land,  and 
the  food  we  eat  is  grown  by  the  Emperor’s  men.  How 
can  we  make  it  our  own?  We  now  reverently  offer  up 
the  lists  of  our  possessions  and  men,  with  the  prayer 
that  the  Emperor  will  take  good  measures  for  rewarding 
them  to  whom  reward  is  due,  and  taking  from  those  to 


336 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


whom  punishment  is  due.  Let  the  imperial  orders  he 
issued  for  altering  and  remodeling  the  territories  of  the 
various  classes,  etc.” 

So  the  Emperor  issued  a decree  (August,  1869)  abolish- 
ing the  daimiates  and  restoring  their  revenues  to  the  im- 
perial treasury;  furthermore  the  rank  of  Daimyo  and 
court  noble  (kuge),  were  united  in  one  rank.  For  pur- 
poses of  government,  prefectures  (Ken),  instead  of  daimi- 
ates were  created,  and  the  Daimyos  authorized  to  act  as 
governors  of  these  Ken;  but  unfortunately  they  proved 
unfit  for  their  new  office,  and  had  to  be  substituted  grad- 
ually by  competent  persons.  It  cost  the  imperial  gov- 
ernment an  immense  sum  of  money.  It  would  be  nei- 
ther just  nor  prudent  to  leave  penniless  the  Daimyos 
who  had  surrendered  all  their  territories.  The  central 
government  had  to  borrow  8165,000,000  in  order  to  pay 
to  each  Daimyo  an  equitable  sum.  But  what  was  to  be 
done  with  the  Samurai,  who  had  constituted  the  stand- 
ing armies  of  each  clan  and  had  been  supported  from 
the  revenues  of  their  Daimyos?  The  central  govern- 
ment put  many  of  the  able-bodied  ones  into  the  army 
and  navy,  made  policemen  of  others,  and  appointed 
some  to  government  office.  Later,  the  pensions  pro- 
vided for  the  Samurai  were  capitalized  into  a lump  sum 
and  paid  off  by  the  government.  This  was  unfortunate 
for  many  of  them,  for  they  spent  it  foolishly  and  quick- 
ly, and,  knowing  nothing  about  work  or  business,  many 
were  reduced  to  poverty  and  suffering,  and,  becoming 
desperate,  caused  a civil  war  later  on.  To  most  of 
them,  however,  as  soldiers  or  policemen,  or  in  office, 
the  new  order  brought  no  hardship;  it  pleased  their 
pride  as  bearers  of  the  sword  and  rulers  still  in  the 
land. 

Afterwards  another  reform  in  the  social  revolution 


LAST  SCENES  OF  A DAIMYO. 


337 


took  place.  The  eta,  an  outcast  race,  and  the  heimln , 
the  common  people,  were  both  admitted  into  the  body 
politic.  Hitherto  the  heimin  had  no  family  names, 
were  in  fact  serfs  of  the  soil,  but  now  they  may  have 
family  names,  and  other  civil  rights  as  free  individuals. 
The  liberation  of  the  heimin  from  serfdom  was  the 
morning  dawn  of  human  freedom,  the  beginning  of  the 
end  of  Asiatic  despotism,  and  the  end  of  feudalism. 

A closing  scene  to  this  age-long  feudalism  which  for 
better  and  worse  had  flourished  in  Japan  is  given  by 
Griffis.  (“  Mikado’s  Empire,”  pp.  533,  534.)  As  above 
mentioned,  the  Daimyos  proved  unfit  for  governors  of 
Kens  under  the  new  order  of  things,  and  the  central 
government,  having  amply  provided  for  them,  decided 
to  order  them  all  to  come  with  their  families  to 
Tokyo,  there  to  live.  The  day  came  for  the  Daimyo 
of  Echizen  to  bid  farewell  to  his  retainers,  assembled 
in  the  castle  hall  in  Fukui,  the  capital  of  the  clan. 
Prof.  Griffis,  who  had  been  sent  out  from  America  as 
director  of  the  Daimyos’  Xew  English  school  at  Fukui, 
was  present,  and  thus  describes  the  circumstances:  “Oc- 
tober 1,  1871.  From  an  early  hour  the  Samurai  in 
kamishimo  (ceremonial  dress)  had  been  assembling  in 
the  castle.  I shall  never  forget  the  impressive  scene. 
All  the  sliding  partitions  were  removed,  making  one 
vast  area  of  matting  (one  vast  hall).  In  the  order  of 
their  rank,  each  in  starched  ceremonial  dress,  with 
shaven  crown  and  gun-hammer  topknot,  with  hands 
clasping  the  hilt  of  his  sword  held  upright  before  him 
as  he  sat  on  his  knees,  were  the  three  thousand  Samurai 
of  the  Fukui  clan.  Those  bowed  heads  were  busy 
thinking.  It  was  more  than  a farewell  to  their  feudal 
lord,  who  was  now  to  retire  to  private  life  as  a gentle- 
man of  Tokyo.  It  was  the  solemn  burial  of  the  insti- 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


338 

tutions  under  which  they  had  lived  for  seven  hundred 
years.  I fancied  I read  their  thoughts,  somewhat  as 
follows:  ‘ The  sword  is  the  soul  of  the  Samurai,  and  the 
Samurai  the  soul  of  Japan.  Is  the  sword  to  be  ungirt 
and  be  thrown  aside  for  the  inkstand  and  the  mer- 
chant’s ledger?  Is  the  Samurai  to  become  a trader?  Is 
honor  to  be  reckoned  less  than  money?  Is  Japan’s 
spirit  to  become  degraded  to  the  level  of  the  sordid  for- 
eigners, who  are  draining  our  country’s  wealth?  Our 
children,  too — what  is  to  become  of  them?  Must  they 
labor  and  earn  their  own  bread?  Must  we  whose  fa- 
thers were  knights  and  warriors,  and  whose  blood  and 
spirit  we  inherit,  be  mingled  with  the  common  herd? 
Must  we  now  marry  our  daughters  to  a trader,  defile 
our  family  line  to  save  our  own  lives  and  fill  our  stom- 
achs?’ These  thoughts  shadowed  the  sea  of  dark  faces 
of  the  waiting  vassals.  When  the  coming  of  the  Dai- 
myo  was  announced  one  could  have  heard  the  dropping 
of  a pin  in  the  silence.  Matsudaira  Mochiake,  now  Lord 
of  Echizen,  but  to-morrow  a private  nobleman,  ad- 
vanced down  the  wide  corridor  of  the  main  hall.  He 
was  a stern-looking  man.  He  was  dressed  in  purple 
satin  hakama,  inner  robe  of  white  satin,  and  outer  coat 
of  silk  crape  of  dark  slate  color,  embroidered  on  sleeves, 
back,  and  breast  with  the  Tokugawa  crest.  In  his  gir- 
dle was  thrust  his  short  sword  with  a hilt  of  carved  and 
frosted  gold.  His  feet,  cased  in  white  cloth  tabi,  moved 
noiselessly  over  the  matting.  As  he  passed  every  head 
was  bowed,  every  sword  laid  prone  to  the  right,  and 
the  prince  with  deep  but  unexpressed  emotion  advanced 
amidst  the  ranks  of  his  followers  to  the  center  of  the 
hall.  There  in  a brief  and  noble  address,  read  by  his 
chief  minister,  the  history  of  the  clan  and  their  rela- 
tions as  lord  and  vassals,  the  revolution  of  1868,  and 


A DAIMYO’S  FAREWELL. 


339 


the  cause  thereof,  the  restoration  of  the  imperial  house 
to  power,  and  the  Mikado’s  reasons  for  ordering  the 
territorial  princes  to  restore  their  fiefs,  were  tersely 
and  eloquently  recounted.  He  urged  his  vassals  all  to 
transfer  their  allegiance  to  the  Mikado  and  the  imperial 
house.  Then,  wishing  them  all  success  and  prosperity 
in  their  new  relations,  their  persons,  families,  and  es- 
tates, in  chaste  and  fitting  language  he  hade  his  fol- 
lowers a solemn  farewell.  On  behalf  of  his  vassals, 
one  of  them  read  an  address  expressing  their  feelings, 
with  kindly  references  to  the  prince  as  their  former  lord, 
declaring  henceforth  their  allegiance  to  the  imperial 
house.  This  terminated  the  ceremony.  The  next  day 
the  whole  city  was  astir  and  the  streets  were  crowded 
with  people  from  city  and  country,  coming  in  their  best 
clothes  to  see  their  prince  for  the  last  time.  It  was  a 
farewell  gathering  of  all  his  people,  hundreds  of  old 
men,  women,  and  children  weeping  over  the  departure 
of  their  lord.  A regiment  of  one  thousand  men  escorted 
him  to  Takefu,  twelve  miles  away.  A few  retainers, 
his  body  servants,  and  physician  accompanied  him  to 
Tokyo.”  A scene  like  this  probably  occurred  at  every 
provincial  seat  throughout  Japan.  To  the  people  it  was 
the  breaking  up  of  their  world. 

The  dying  scenes  of  an  old  order  of  things  are  always 
sad  to  look  upon.  This  dying  day  of  Japanese  feudal- 
ism would  in  any  case  be  of  deep  interest  to  the  student 
of  history;  but  here  it  is  still  more  so,  because  it  was  not 
only  the  end  of  feudalism  for  Japan,  but  for  the  world. 
There  is  now  no  country  where  the  feudal  system  pre- 
vails to  any  extent  worthy  of  mention.  Here,  then, 
perished  a social  order  and  a system  of  government  never 
to  reappear  in  the  history  of  the  world’s  civilization. 

However,  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  these  rapid 


340 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY.  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


currents  of  reform  and  progress  were  not  met  by  strong 
counter  currents.  There  was  still  a strong  anti-foreign 
and  anti-Christian  party,  who  believed  that  every  step 
away  from  the  old  order  and  customs,  and  any  adoption 
of  foreign  ways,  meant  ruin  to  Japan.  The  radical 
changes  made  by  the  government  aroused  deep  dissat- 
isfaction in  many  quarters.  A rise  in  prices  angered 
the  common  people,  who  said:  “It  is  because  they  have 
let  the  foreigners  in.”  The  Buddhist  priests,  galled 
because  of  the  government’s  harsh  treatment  of  them, 
were  only  too  glad  of  an  excuse  to  stir  up  their  Bud- 
dhist followers  over  the  removal  of  the  edict  boards 
against  Christianity. 

Against  Prince  Iwakura,  in  particular,  there  was  bad 
feeling.  “This  man,  who  comes  back  from  the  foreign 
countries  filled  with  their  notions,  is  an  enemy  to  our 
Japan;  let  him  be  killed  as  a pest.”  And  sure  enough, 
one  January  evening  in  1873,  as  he  was  returning  from 
an  interview  with  the  Emperor,  just  outside  the  castle 
moat,  near  the  palace  gates,  he  was  attacked.  His  car- 
riage was  pierced  and  slit  with  spears  and  swords. 
Iwakura,  wounded  in  two  places,  jumped  out  on  the 
other  side,  next  to  the  moat,  fell,  and  rolled  down  the 
bank  into  the  water.  Fortunately  it  was  pitch-dark, 
and  the  murderers  were  afraid  to  stay  to  search  for  him. 
He  recovered.  Soon  afterwards  nine  ronin  were  ar- 
rested and  beheaded  for  their  attempted  murder  of  the 
Prime  Minister. 

But  the  discontent  was  especially  rife  among  many 
of  the  Samurai,  who,  because  their  pensions  had  been 
decreased,  and  afterwards  paid  off  in  a lump  sum  and 
most  of  it  spent,  were  now,  as  they  imagined,  left  to 
starve.  “Our  swords,”  they  said,  “restored  the  Em- 
peror to  the  throne,  but  now  his  advisers  neglect  us.” 


SATSUMA  REBELLION. 


341 


Trained  only  for  war,  too  many  of  them  were  like  the 
proud  eagle,  that  starves  rather  than  become  a seed  eater. 
Without  occupation  or  support,  they  formed  roving 
bauds  ready  to  follow  a leader  in  an  uprising,  especially 
in  the  South  and  Southwest.  Unfortunately  two  great 
men  who  ten  years  before  had  fought  for  the  Emperor 
were  now  embittered:  Shimadzu,  of  Satsuma,  and  Gen. 
Saigo.  Shimadzu  was  the  prince  whose  guards  had  cut 
down  Richardson  near  Y okohama,  and  Saigo  had  been  a 
commanding  general  in  the  late  war  with  the  Shogun. 

When  the  tall  form  and  brave  heart  of  Saigo  went 
over  to  the  side  of  the  discontented  Samurai,  then  the 
government  became  alarmed.  He  was  holding  a high  po- 
sition in  the  new  government,  but  got  angry  because  by 
the  counsel  of  Iwakura  and  Okuba  the  Emperor  would 
not  declare  war  against  Korea.  Quitting  the  govern- 
ment, he  returned  to  Satsuma  and  began  drilling  his 
men,  but  otherwise  took  no  part  in  local  insurrections. 
But  in  1876  the  government  struck  the  Samurai  right 
in  their  faces  by  issuing  a decree  forbidding  them  to 
wear  their  swords,  an  ancient  honor  dearer  than  life 
itself.  Henceforth  only  those  connected  with  army  or 
navy,  or  holding  some  office,  could  wear  swords.  The 
swords  of  those  discontented  Samurai  were  a constant 
menace  to  foreigners,  and  would  be  the  occasion  of  for- 
eign war.  But  the  taking  away  of  their  swords  was 
more  than  they  could  stand;  it  was  to  deprive  them  of 
the  last  mark  of  their  rank  and  glory.  And  so  Saigo 
himself  resolved  to  rise  up  against  the  government. 
War  broke  out  in  1877.  But  notwithstanding  a valiant 
struggle  he  was  defeated,  and  died  on  the  battlefield 
either  by  his  own  hand  or,  by  his  order,  at  the  hand  of 
a faithful  follower.  His  head  was  cut  off,  to  prevent 
recognition  and  insult  if  he  should  be  captured.  But 


342 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


when  the  bloody  head  was  brought  to  the  imperial  gen- 
eral after  the  battle,  he  wept  and  ordered  it  to  be  treated 
with  honor.  Strangely,  Saigo  died  fighting  against  the 
very  throne  he  had  helped  to  restore. 

This,  called  the  “Saigo”  or  “Satsuma”  rebellion, 
cost  Japan  much  blood  and  millions  of  money.  After 
this  rebellion  there  was  no  more  fighting.  This  was  the 
last  open  and  violent  struggle  of  the  old  Japan  against 
the  new.  Nevertheless,  after  this  there  still  burned  the 
spirit  of  revenge;  and  the  excellent  and  progressive  gov- 
ernment leader,  Okubo,  was  the  victim  who  had  next  to 
be  sacrificed  upon  the  altar  of  enlightenment  and  liberty 
in  his  country’s  behalf.  Okubo  was  murdered  in  the 
public  highway,  in  broad  daylight,  May,  1878. 

More  than  all  his  colleagues,  Okubo  was  inclined  to 
foreign  ideas,  and  more  determined  to  raise  his  country 
to  the  level  of  foreign  countries.  Resolute,  modest,  his 
will  was  iron  and  his  action  rapid.  He  was  the  author 
of  many  reforms.  Warned  of  his  danger,  he  said  to  his 
friends  that  he  believed  Heaven  would  protect  him  if 
his  work  was  not  yet  done;  otherwise,  his  life  would  not 
be  spared.  His  words  were  prophetic.  His  murderers 
were,  it  is  said,  six  Samurai  who  had  escaped  from  the 
Satsuma  rebellion.  The  funeral,  attended  by  princes, 
noblemen,  and  foreign  ambassadors,  was  the  most  im- 
posing ever  seen  in  Tokyo.  Griffis  says:  “Okubo’s  tall, 
arrowy  form,  heavy  side  whiskers,  large  expressive 
eyes,  and  eager,  expectant  bearing  gave  him  the  look  of 
a European  rather  than  a Japanese.” 

To  the  earlier  part  of  this  period  belongs  the  reform 
of  the  central  government.  It  seems  to  be  a combina- 
tion of  their  ancient  system  of  government  modeled 
after  the  Chinese  court,  and  of  the  modern  French  min- 
istries, as  follows: 


IMPERIAL  GOVERNMENT  ORGANIZED. 


343 


1.  The  Emperor,  supreme  in  authority  of  every  kind. 

2.  Daijo  Kwan,  great  Council  of  State: 

(1)  Emperor; 

(2)  Daijo  Daijin,  Minister-President; 

(3)  Sa  Daijin,  Minister  of  the  Left; 

(4)  XJ  Daijin,  Minister  of  the  Right. 

3.  Ministers  of  the  ten  departments: 

(1)  Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs; 

(2)  Ministry  of  the  Interior; 

(3)  Ministry  of  Finance; 

(4)  Ministry  of  War; 

(5)  Ministry  of  Marine; 

(6)  Ministry  of  Education; 

(7)  Ministry  of  Religion  (now  abolished); 

(8)  Ministry  of  Public  Works; 

(9)  Ministry  of  Justice; 

(10)  Ministry  of  Imperial  Household. 

The  administration  of  the  thirty-five  Kens,  into  which 
the  whole  country  was  divided  (1876),  was  intrusted  to 
governors  appointed  by  the  Emperor. 

Two  or  three  international  events  require  a word  here. 

The  Formosa  imbroglio  was  brought  about  by  an  at- 
tack made  by  the  semisavage  people  of  the  island  upon 
some  shipwrecked  Japanese  sailors.  To  teach  them  a 
lesson,  Japan  sent  to  Formosa  an  expedition  that  made 
short  work  of  them.  This  led  to  complications  with 
China,  which  claimed  sovereignty  over  that  island,  and 
war  was  about  to  break  out,  but  was  averted  by  her 
paying  an  indemnity  to  Japan  for  the  expense  of  the  ex- 
pedition. Okubo  was  the  man  for  the  crisis. 

That  the  Japanese  world  was  moving  was  shown  in 
the  scene  enacted  by  the  Japanese  Ambassador  standing 
upright  before  the  ruler  of  the  Dragon  Throne  (China), 
dressed,  in  tight  black  coat  and  pants,  white  neckwear, 


344 


japan:  country,  court,  people* 

and  polished  hoots,  making  a treaty  and  hearing  con- 
gratulations from  the  young  Emperor  of  the  Sunrise 
Empire.  China  had  affected  contempt  for  Japan  be- 
cause she  was  imitating  the  ways  of  the  “foreign  devils” 
of  America  and  Europe. 

The  Korean  affair  was  also  peacefully  settled.  The 
Koreans  had  fired  upon  a Japanese  vessel  seeking  pro- 
visions and  coal,  and  this  aroused  the  war  spirit  of  the 
nation.  The  Koreans  had  been  treating  the  Japanese 
vessel  in  distress  as  the  Japanese  used  to  treat  the 
American  ships.  An  expedition  after  the  pattern  of 
Commodore  Perry’s  was  dispatched  (1876)  to  Korea 
to  bring  about  better  relations.  Negotiations  result- 
ed in  treaties  of  amity  and  commerce,  and  thus  the 
last  of  the  hermit  kingdoms  was  opened  to  the  world. 
The  United  States  and  France  had  both  made  earnest 
efforts  to  conclude  such  a treaty  with  Korea,  but  had 
failed;  this  victory  in  diplomacy  was  left  for  the  Japa- 
nese to  win. 

Still  another  event  of  some  international  significance 
was  Japan’s  exhibit  at  our  Centennial  Exposition  at  Phil- 
adelphia, in  1876.  This  was  the  first  time  in  her  history 
that  she  ever  attempted  to  offer  her  productions  in  a pub- 
lic way  to  the  gaze  and  scrutiny  of  the  civilized  w;orld. 
Japan  was  among  the  first  to  accept  the  invitation  to 
commemorate  the  centennial  of  American  independence; 
and  her  exhibition,  especially  of  her  art  products,  was 
surprisingly  well  got  up,  and  produced  in  art  circles  a 
distinct  sensation.  Such  art  culture  had  not  been  cred- 
ited to  the  Japanese.  Nor  was  the  sensation  less  marked 
two  years  afterwards,  when  Japan’s  art  exhibits  were 
uncovered  at  the  W orld’s  Exposition  in  Paris. 

Omitting  many  things,  we  can  touch  upon  only  a few 
more  reforms  undertaken  by  the  new  government. 


REFORMS  OF  THE  NEW  GOVERNMENT. 


*45 


First,  the  army  and  navy  had  to  he  reorganized. 
It  was  a great  innovation  when  soldiers  were  re- 
cruited from  all  parts  of  the  country  and  from  the 
lowest  classes.  Hitherto  only  the  Samurai  class  had 
the  honor  of  bearing  arms;  now  all  persons  from 
twenty  years  upward  were  upon  the  same  basis  re- 
specting conscription  into  the  army.  Of  course  the  old 
hemlets  and  armor,  spears,  bows  and  arrows  were  cast 
aside,  and  the  soldiers  were  clothed,  armed,  and  drilled 
in  the  foreign  fashion.  And  all  the  numerous  castles 
that  dotted  the  land,  except  fifty-five  that  were  turned 
over  to  the  war  department,  were  dismantled.  That 
must  have  been  a strange  sight  to  the  people,  and  a sad 
one  to  the  Samurai,  the  dismantling  of  the  seats  of 
honor  and  might  of  their  old  chiefs.  Meanwhile  the 
naval  department  was  also  reorganized.  The  first  war 
ships  of  modern  build  were  bought  from  the  Dutch. 
Among  the  first  war  vessels  of  the  Restoration  was  the 
Stonewall,  presented  by  the  United  States  government 
at  the  close  of  the  war  between  the  States.  The  first 
officers  and  commanders  of  the  Japanese  navy  were 
trained  in  England,  France,  and  the  United  States. 

The  modern  Western  system  of  education  was  adopted 
in  1873  by  the  issuing  of  a code  of  laws  creating  and 
regulating  a system  of  schools.  As  we  shall  see  from 
the  study  of  the  educational  side  of  missions,  the  mis- 
sionaries were  the  first  teachers  of  the  Japanese.  When 
Commodore  Perry  came  to  Japan  the  Dutch  was  the 
only  foreign  tongue  which  a very  few  Japanese  could 
use,  and  that  very  badly.  Among  Perry’s  cargo  of 
presents  for  the  Emperor  of  Japan  was  Webster’s  Dic- 
tionary. Perry  was  a man  of  prophecy;  the  present 
heir  apparent  to  the  imperial  throne  reads  and  speaks 
English. 


346 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


Immediately  after  the  treaties  went  into  operation 
and  ports  were  opened  for  foreign  trade,  residence,  and 
ships,  the  need  for  a knowledge  of  English  was  keenly 
felt.  Not  the  Dutch  but  the  English  control  the  trade 
of  the  high  seas  and  ports  of  Asia.  Anybody  there- 
fore among  the  Japanese  who  could  spell  a few  English 
words  was  in  great  demand.  In  those  early  days  of  the 
open  ports  the  demand  for  English  was  so  pressing 
that  clerks  from  stores  and  sailors  from  their  vessels 
betook  themselves  to  teaching  English.  Many  of  them 
knew  little  more  than  the  “three  R’s.”  Alas!  many  of 
them  were  more  familiar  with  vulgar,  swearing  words 
than  their  English  grammar.  Their  frequent  oaths,  even 
in  the  schoolroom,  puzzled  their  pupils,  who  could  not 
find  such  words  in  their  spellers  and  small  English  dic- 
tionaries. By  and  by,  however,  the  Japanese  discovered 
that  these  sailors  and  carpenter  teachers  were  impostors 
of  English  learning  by  contrasting  them  with  the 
learned  missionaries.  So  the  career  of  the  sailor  mas- 
ters in  Japan  came  to  an  (un)timely  end,  being  sup- 
planted by  the  missionaries. 

The  Hon.  William  H.  Seward,  Lincoln’s  Secretary 
of  State,  who  afterwards  visited  Japan,  wrote  substan- 
tially: “If  the  United  States’s  influence  in  Japan  is  to 
be  successful,  it  must  be  based  . upon  distinctions,  not 
merely  of  war  and  strength  between  nations.  Instead 
of  navies  and  armies,  let  teachers  be  sent  to  instruct 
them  and  establish  schools  where  philosophy  and 
morals  and  religious  faith  may  be  taught  with  just  re- 
gard to  their  influence  upon  the  social  and  domestic 
life.”  These  words  of  America’s  great  statesman  have 
been  fulfilled  in  a good  degree. 

It  was  in  1872  that  Hon.  Mr.  Mori,  then  Charge 
D’ Affairs  at  Washington,  sent  circular  letters  to  many 


MODERN  EDUCATION  ADOPTED. 


347 


of  the  colleges  and  university  presidents  in  America 
asking  their  opinion  of  the  effect  of  education  upon  the 
well-being  of  nations  and  requesting  suggestions  touch- 
ing an  educational  system  for  Japan. 

Japanese  leaders  like  Mori,  Fukuzawa,  and  others 
admired  Western  ideas,  and  especially  those  of  the 
United  States,  and  hence  took  the  educational  system 
of  America  as  a model  for  theirs.  A comprehensive 
system  of  government  schools  was  the  result.  They 
went  beyond  even  ourselves,  in  that  an  educational  de- 
partment was  created  in  the  government,  and  the  head 
of  it  was  made  a cabinet  minister;  and  the  attendance  of 
children  from  six  years  was  compulsory;  the  whole  ex- 
pense being  provided  for  by  appropriations  made  for 
education  out  of  the  annual  government  budget. 

Beginning  at  the  bottom,  there  is:  (1)  the  primary 
schools;  (2)  the  middle  schools;  (3)  the  seven  higher 
schools  or  colleges;  and  (4)  the  one  Imperial  Uni- 
versity, the  head  of  the  whole  system.  Besides  the 
university  there  are  normal  schools  both  male  and 
female,  and  agricultural,  commercial,  and  industrial 
schools;  more  recently  a school  of  fine  arts.  For  the 
children  of  the  nobles,  there  was  founded  in  Tokyo  a 
nobles’  school  for  boys  and  a peeresses’  school  for  girls. 
It  is  to  be  observed  that  from  the  very  first  provision 
was  made  for  female  as  well  as  male  common  schools. 
The  Empress  is  the  worthy  patroness  of  the  peeresses’ 
school  in  Tokyo,  and  takes  the  deepest  interest  in  its 
work.  As  a mere  secular  system  of  education  it  is  ad- 
mirable, and  is  as  well  jointed  together  as  anything  we 
can  show  in  any  of  our  States.  The  equipment  and  ap- 
pliances in  the  middle  schools  and  colleges  compare 
well  with  corresponding  institutions  in  this  country. 

English  and  other  languages  are  regularly  taught 


348 


.JAPAN*:  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


from  the  middle  schools  upward.  At  first  the  mission- 
aries were  earnestly  sought  after  to  take  charge  of  these 
schools.  F or  example,  Dr.  V erbeck  was  the  first  Presi- 
dent of  the  university  in  Tokyo,  from  1869  to  1874.  The 
missionaries  not  being  able  to  devote  sufficient  time  to 
this  outside  work,  afterwards  not  less  than  four  hundred 
other  foreigners  were  engaged  at  high  salaries  to  teach 
in  these  new  institutions.  Later  still,  scores  of  the 
brightest  young  men,  who  had  been  sent  by  the  govern- 
ment to  the  United  States  and  other  Western  countries 
to  be  educated,  came  back  and  were  assigned  high  posi- 
tions in  the  educational  department  and  in  the  schools. 

The  eagerness  of  the  Japanese  youth  for  English 
and  other  branches  of  foreign  learning  was  a marvel. 
They  drank  it  in  like  thirsty  men  drink  fresh  water. 
At  first  it  was  Webster’s  blue- back  spelling  book,  Wil- 
son’s readers,  Mitchel’s  geography,  Goodrich’s  histor- 
ical series  including  United  States  history,  and  Quack- 
enbos’s  natural  history.  Way  land’s  “Moral  Science” 
and  “Political  Economy  ” made  a new  epoch  when  they 
were  introduced.  It  looked  indeed  as  if  the  Japanese 
leaders  were  intent  upon  making  education  the  hand- 
maid to  religion.  We  shall  see.  Private  schools  also 
sprang  up  here  and  there,  notably  that  of  Mr.  Fuku- 
zawa,  in  Tokyo,  where  some  of  the  brightest  young 
men  were  educated,  men  who  became  prominent  in 
public  life. 

New  Postal  System. — Before  this,  letters  were  carried 
according  to  the  primitive  system  of  runners.  It  cost 
twenty-five  cents  to  send  a letter  one  hundred  and  fifty 
miles.  This  cumbrous  and  sIoav  way  did  not  suit  the 
foreign  settlers  in  the  treaty  ports,  and  hence  the  Eng- 
glish,  French,  and  American  governments  established  a 
system  of  post  offices  of  their  own  in  the  open  ports. 


MODEllN  PROGRESS. 


349 


But  in  1871  the  Japanese  government  adopted  the  for- 
eign plan.  The  post  office  system  is  modeled  after  that 
of  the  United  States,  and  is  superior  to  it.  There  is 
free  delivery  at  every  man’s  door  through  the  country, 
extending  even  to  the  towns  and  villages  in  the  remote 
interior  districts.  There  is  nothing  equal  to  this  in 
the  United  States.  A few  years  after  the  foreign  sys- 
tem was  introduced,  it  worked  so  well  that  Japan  was 
(in  1877)  formally  admitted  into  the  International  Post- 
al Union. 

JVew  Police  System . — As  early  as  1872  the  police 
force  was  organized  in  foreign  fashion.  The  police- 
men were  taken  from  the  Samurai  class,  who,  being 
used  to  the  exercise  of  authority  over  the  people,  fell 
into  their  new  posts  and  duties  of  quietly  patrolling 
the  streets  and  keeping  order  as  if  they  had  been  at  it 
for  generations.  At  first  they  felt  a bit  awkward  in 
their  new  uniforms,  caps,  coats,  pants,  and  boots,  all 
in  foreign  style,  but  as  soon  as  they  touched  the  hilts  of 
their  swords,  which  they  still  wore  at  their  sides,  they 
felt  themselves  to  be  the  same  old  Samurai  as  of  yore. 
A Samurai  is  always  at  himself  as  long  as  he  can  feel 
his  sword.  In  every  town  and  village  these  Samurai 
police  may  be  seen,  and  the  people  generally  stand  in 
awe  of  them.  The  writer  has  frequently  seen  one  of 
the  common  people  humbling  himself  before  the  po- 
licemen in  a manner  quite  uncommon  in  our  country. 
Nor  would  it  be  easy  for  a foreigner  or  a Japanese, 
when  once  his  name  and  residence  are  known,  to  es- 
cape the  eye  of  the  police  anywhere  in  the  country, 
for  the  whole  force  is  subject  to  one  central  office  in  To- 
kyo. Unlike  ours,  it  is  imperial  or  national. 

Hitherto  the  foreigners’  movements  were  particularly 
watched  by  the  policemen.  In  the  first  place,  your  pass- 


350 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


port  from  the  government  must  be  in  your  pocket  when 
you  start,  otherwise  the  policeman  at  the  railway  station 
or  the  ship’s  wharf  will  turn  you  back.  And  when  you 
land  at  your  destination  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  show 
your  passport,  and  when  you  get  to  the  inn  or  stopping 
place  your  name,  age,  nationality,  and  place  of  residence 
must  all  be  reported  to  the  nearest  police  office.  Some 
foreigners,  including  the  missionaries,  found  all  this 
red  tape  to  be  annoying  sometimes,  especially  when  the 
police  officer  was  disposed  to  put  on  official  airs,  but  it 
was  right,  for  it  was  according  to  the  treaties.  As  a 
rule  the  writer  lias  found  the  police  to  be  reasonably 
civil  and  considerate. 

JVew  Banking  and  Coinage  System. — Abraham’s 
money  was  silver,  weighed  out  upon  the  balances; 
Japan’s  in  the  old  feudal  times  was  gold  and  silver  bars, 
and  coins  of  gold  and  copper  pieces.  The  wealthy 
Daimyo  could  issue  }:>aper  money  current  in  his  prov- 
ince. But  the  New  Japan  has  national  money  and 
banks.  In  1872  bank  regulations  were  issued  by  the 
government  authorizing  the  opening  of  national  banks 
like  ours  in  America.  As  many  as  one  hundred  and 
fifty  soon  sprang  up,  and  afterwards  many  more.  The 
Bank  of  Japan  in  Tokyo  was  intended  to  be  to  Japan 
what  the  Bank  of  London  is  to  England.  It  has  a paid- 
up  capital  of  ten  million  yen,  and  is  the  central  bank 
of  the  whole  system,  and  handles  the  loans  and  bonds 
of  the  government.  All  are  under  the  superintend- 
ence of  the  Treasury  Department.  The  system  of 
coinage  is  like  ours,  the  decimal,  consisting  of  dollars, 
dimes,  and  coppers.  Japan  is  now  a part  of  the  great 
monetary  system  of  the  world,  and  checks  of  exchange 
may  be  bought  there  upon  any  of  the  great  banks  of 
Europe  or  America.  And  now  that  she  has  been  made  a 


MODERN  PROGRESS. 


351 


member  of  the  International  Post  Office  Money  Order 
Convention,  money  orders  payable  in  any  of  the  cities  in 
the  civilized  world  may  be  bought  in  Japan.  The  national 
mint,  located  in  the  city  of  Osaka,  was  of  course,  like  all 
other  new  enterprises,  started  under  the  superintendence 
of  foreigners,  though  now  all  the  mint  officials  are  Jap- 
anese. It  is  a large  establishment,  and  clean  silver  dol- 
lars are  turned  out  by  the  barrel  daily  Japan  is  a 
silver  country,  though  gold  is  also  turned  out  in  small 
quantities.  Arrangements  have  been  made  for  adopting 
a gold  standard. 

First  Railroad. — The  first  railway  opened  in  1872 
was  only  eighteen  miles  long,  and  extended  from  Yoko- 
hama to  Tokyo.  It  was  built  by  English  engineers,  and 
became  the  j)attern  of  all  the  roads  of  the  empire.  In  the 
English  system  engines  are  Ioav,  coaches  are  small  and  en- 
tered from  the  side.  The  coaches  are  in  apartments,  and 
are  of  the  first,  second,  and  third  class.  While  in  elegance, 
convenience,  and  speed  Japanese  railways  cannot  com- 
pare with  the  American  “palaces on  iron  wheels,”  Eng- 
lish thoroughness  and  strength  may  be  quickly  seen  in 
the  construction  of  the  imperial  trunk  line  running 
now  from  Tokyo  to  Kobe.  As  yet  there  are  no  Pull- 
man sleeping  coaches.  That  was  a high  day  for  Japan 
when  on  a clear  October  morning  the  Emperor  made  a 
procession  to  the  stone-built  depot  in  Tokyo,  attended 
by  princes  of  the  blood,  court  nobles,  members  of  the 
foreign  diplomatic  corps,  and  many  other  distinguished 
men,  besides  twenty  thousand  in  promiscuous  multitude. 
His  majesty  and  his  suite  stepped  into  the  train,  and 
in  the  presence  of  that  sea  of  expectant  faces  formally 
declared  the  road  open.  As  the  train  moved  off  the 
national  hymn,  said  to  be  over  two  thousand  years  old, 
was  played.  When  the  train,  passing  flower-decked 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


352 

stations  along  the  way,  reached  Yokohama  the  thun- 
dering salutes  from  foreign  war  ships  made  congratula- 
tions to  the  new  Japan.  Mr.  Griffis, who  was  an  eye- 
witness that  day,  says,  however,  that  all  the  pageant 
and  pomp  paled  before  that  other  scene,  when  four 
merchants  in  plain  garb,  approaching  the  Emperor,  read 
to  him  a congratulatory  address,  and  he  replied.  To 
us,  with  our  democratic  spirit,  this  would  have  small 
significance;  but  in  Japan  it  was  little  less  than  a so- 
cial and  political  miracle,  the  lowest  of  the  social  class 
speaking  face  to  face  with  the  Son  of  Heaven,  their  di- 
vinely descended  sovereign!  It  was  proof  of  the  birth 
of  a new  Japan;  that  the  merchant  class  is  to  be  lifted 
up  from  its  despised  place,  giving  commerce  new 
meaning  and  power  in  the  future  destiny  of  the  nation; 
that  steam  power  will  supplant  the  old  method  of  go- 
ing on  foot  or  in  the  sedan  chair  and  the  hauling  of 
goods  by  two- wheeled  carts  pulled  by  men  or  cows. 

First  Telegraph  Lines. — Even  before  the  opening  of 
the  first  railway  telegraphing  was  introduced  into  the 
country,  the  first  telegraph  line  being  from  Yokohama 
to  Tokyo.  Afterwards  telegraph  lines  were  extended 
from  Tokyo  as  the  heart  of  the  system  to  all  the  prin- 
cipal towns  north  and  south.  Commodore  Perry’s 
men  operated  on  shore  both  the  railway  and  telegraph 
on  a small  scale,  and  the  people  stood  and  marveled. 
To-day  they  are  familiar  with  the  sight  of  the  railway 
train,  telegraph  wires  and  poles.  Unlike  the  Chinese, 
they  were  not  the  alarmed  victims  of  fung-shui , and 
did  not  rise  up  like  them  in  excited  mobs  and  tear  up 
the  railway  track  or  tear  down  the  telegraph  poles. 
Japan  has  been  admitted  into  the  International  Tele- 
graph Convention,  has  cables  laid  under  the  sea  be- 
tween Nagasaki,  China,  Korea,  and  the  Russian  port 


MODERN  PROGRESS. 


353 


Vladivostock.  Messages  may  be  sent  all  around  the 
world,  reaching  New  York  or  New  Orleans  several 
hours  before  they  were  started  from  Japan! 

Other  Internal  Improvements.  — Besides  the  fore- 
going there  were  public  works,  machine  shops,  naval 
yards,  customhouses,  lighthouses,  and  buoys.  As  the 
coastwise  commerce  increased,  it  became  necessary  to 
to  have  modern- built  lighthouses,  the  beacon  lights  for 
ships,  and  the  sailor’s  delight  in  the  darkness.  Har- 
bors were  improved;  customhouses  were  established; 
steamship  companies  were  also  organized,  not  only  for 
the  coastwise  trade,  but  for  trade  with  Siberian  Rus- 
sia, Korea,  China,  and  afterwards  India.  In  this  same 
period  several  cotton  and  silk  spinning  factories  and 
paper  mills  were  started.  Of  course  it  is  to  be  under- 
stood that  all  these  new  and  unknown  enterprises  could 
not  be  started  by  the  Japanese  without  instruction  and 
superintendence  from  foreigners,  and  that  the  most  of 
the  earlier  ones  were  aided  by  government  moneys. 
Notably  so  was  the  case  of  the  first  steamship  and 
mining  companies.  When  we  say  Japan  made  such 
and  such  reforms  or  established  certain  modern  enter- 
prises, we  mean  that  the  government  did  it,  not  the  peo- 
ple. The  day  of  individual  enterprise  apart  from  the 
leadership  and  financial  aid  of  the  government  was  not 
yet;  but  this  brings  us  to  the 

First  Steps  toward  Constitutional  Liberty  of  the  Peo- 
ple.— To  the  Americans,  so  long  in  the  birthright  of 
personal  rights  and  individual  liberty,  it  may  not  be  so 
interesting  a theme.  We  have  seen  that  the  first  at- 
tempt at  a national  assembly  failed  utterly.  As  a sort 
of  second  attempt  in  the  direction  of  a representative 
government,  the  wise  statesmen  of  the  government  in- 
vited the  governors  of  all  the  Kens  to  come  to  Tokyo 
23 


354 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


to  discuss,  in  the  presence  of  the  Minister  of  the  Interior, 
questions  of  roads,  bridges,  rivers,  public  works,  build- 
ings, taxes,  relief  of  the  destitute.  Likewise  the  ques- 
tion of  local  government,  of  towns,  villages,  and  the 
problem  of  prefectural  assemblies  were  submitted  to 
these  governors.  In  1879,  the  beginning  of  local  self- 
government,  a right  so  precious  to  every  branch  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  race,  was  taken  when  regulations 
were  issued  for  the  holding  of  the  city  and  prefectural 
assemblies.  An  assembly  building  was  put  up  in  the 
capital  of  every  Ken,  and  though  the  governor  was  and 
still  is  appointed  by  the  sovereign,  the  people  of  each 
Ken  or  Ken  city  chose  their  representatives  to  the  Ken 
assembly,  which  has  considerable  range  of  discussion 
and  decision  in  local  affairs.  These  Ken  assemblies 
may  be  compared  in  size  to  the  legislatures  of  small 
States  like  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  and  Rhode  Is- 
land. 

Early  in  this  period  the  advocates  of  the  rights  and 
liberties  of  the  people,  becoming  bolder,  began  to  agi- 
tate for  a true  representative  assembly,  a congress  or 
parliament,  elected  by  the  people.  Political  meetings 
were  held  to  promote  the  movement  toward  popular 
rights.  It  is  well  to  inquire  just  here,  where  did  this 
sentiment  of  the  people’s  rights  come  from?  Who 
were  the  advocates  of  this  strange  doctrine,  on  Asiatic 
soil,  of  representative  government?  Have  not  all  the 
Oriental  governments  from  time  immemorial  been  of 
the  nature  of  absolute  despotisms?  This  movement  for 
popular  rights  was  stirred  into  power  by  the  young 
men  of  the  nation  who  had  come  in  touch  with  foreign 
ideas.  Even  before  the  revolution  of  1868  the  Shogun, 
as  well  as  some  of  the  Southern  Daimyos,  had  sent  a 
few  picked  young  men  of  rank  to  study  in  Holland. 


RIGHTS  OF  THE  PEOPLE. 


355 


And  this  explains  how  the  advisers  of  the  youthful  Em- 
peror when  he  ascended  the  throne  caused  him  to  swear 
that  he  would  grant  a deliberative  assembly.  Those 
advisers  had  been  touched  by  the  spirit  of  modern  po- 
litical freedom.  Under  the  restoration  still  larger  num- 
bers of  bright  young  men  of  high  family  were  chosen 
by  the  government  and  sent  to  England  and  the  United 
States  to  get  their  education,  all  their  expenses  being- 
paid  out  of  the  imperial  treasury.  What  could  be  the 
natural  result?  When  these  young  men  had  spent  sev- 
eral years  in  the  free  air  of  America  or  Great  Britain 
and  seen  with  their  eyes  the  progress,  power,  and  en- 
lightenment of  those  countries,  and  had  returned  to 
their  native  Japan,  they  were  naturally  not  content 
with  the  political  conditions.  They  longed  for  more 
liberty  for  their  own  nation.  Then,  too,  the  newspaper 
press  took  up  this  cry  for  popular  rights  and  began  to 
discuss  it.  The  printing  press,  the  newspaper,  and  the 
monthly  magazine  were  a new  factor,  a factor  of  won- 
drous power  in  the  national  thought  and  feeling  of 
the  nation.  Here  was  a power  for  good  or  evil  in 
molding  the  public  mind  which  no  Asiatic  government 
had  ever  had  to  deal  with.  The  Shimbun  Zashi , started 
in  1871  * by  Kido,  the  distinguished  Samurai  of  Choshu 
and  Councilor  of  State,  began  to  advocate  through  its  col- 
umns the  cause  of  constitutional  government.  But  the 
cabinet  nipped  all  this  in  the  bud  by  issuing  severe  rules 
called  the  “Press  and  Political  Meetings  Regulations.” 
A newspaper  might  be  suspended  and  the  editor  impris- 
oned if  he  were  not  cautious  in  his  writings,  and  a po- 


*The  real  founder  of  Japanese  journalism  was  Mr.  John 
Black,  an  Englishman.  See  “Things  Japanese. ” page  258,  by 
Prof.  Chamberlain. 


356 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


litical  meeting  must  not  be  held  without  notifying  the 
police  of  the  place,  time,  and  nature  of  the  subject. 
And  although  Okuma,  another  leader  and  State  Coun- 
cilor, advocated  the  plans  of  a national  assembly,  the 
ministers  and  leaders  of  the  government  decided  rightly 
that  the  nation  was  not  yet  ripe  for  so  great  a change 
as  popular  self-government.  But  to  satisfy  the  de- 
mand which  was  evidently  deepening  and  strengthen- 
ing in  the  under  swell  of  the  nation’s  heart  an  imperial 
rescript  was  issued  to  the  nation  declaring  that  in  1890 
a constitution  would  be  granted  and  a parliament  cre- 
ated. To  prepare  for  this  great  and  radical  change  in 
their  government,  a commission  was  appointed  and  sent 
abroad  to  study  the  codes  of  laws  and  the  constitutions 
of  foreign  countries.  Count  Ito,  who  had  been  Prime 
Minister,  was  dispatched  (1882)  abroad  to  make  a per- 
sonal study  of  the  institutions  in  those  countries,  and 
upon  returning  was  made  the  head  of  the  bureau  of 
eminent  lawyers,  both  foreign  and  Japanese,  to  pre- 
pare the  constitution  and  the  new  codes  under  it.  This 
was  the  work  of  years.  Meanwhile  further  improve- 
ments and  reforms  in  the  administration  of  the  govern- 
ment were  introduced.  For  example,  the  cabinet  with 
a privy  council,  much  like  that  of  England,  was  organ- 
ized, an  army  of  useless  officials  was  cut  down,  salaries 
were  reduced,  and  civil  service  rules  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  men  to  office,  in  the  several  departments  in 
Tokyo  were  put  into  operation.  The  local  government 
of  the  cities  and  Kens  was  also  much  improved.  All 
these  things  were  the  preparation  for  that  great  epochal 
day,  February  11,  1889,  when  the  Emperor,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  most  distinguished  and  numerous  assembly 
ever  gathered  before  him,  proclaimed  and  granted  a 
constitution. 


FOUNDATIONS  OF  CHRISTIANITY. 


357 


II.  Foundation  Laying  of  the  Christian  Church 
(1873-89). 

Having  seen  the  conflicts,  changes,  and  progressive 
movements  in  the  new  Japanese  state,  let  us  now  turn  our 
eye  upon  the  missionary  field.  Hand  in  hand  with  im- 
portant political  events  set  forth  on  previous  pages,  there 
were  corresponding  movements  in  Christian  missions; 
and  other  events,  which,  though  partly  political,  had 
direct  influence  upon  the  missionary  work. 

The  years  1873-74  are  notable  in  missionary  no  less 
than  in  political  annals.  There  was  (1)  the  partial  adop- 
tion of  the  Gregorian  calendar.  The  old  bunglesome 
Chinese  way  of  counting  thirteen  moons  to  the  year  was 
set  aside,  and  the  modern  method  of  twelve  months,  with 
the  new  year  beginning  always  with  January  1,  was 
adopted.  Sunday  was  adopted  by  the  government  as  a 
weekly  holiday  in  all  government  offices  and  schools. 
The  missionaries  still  engaged  in  the  government  schools 
refused  positively  to  teach  on  Sunday,  and  foreign  offi- 
cials employed  in  the  government  service  likewise  re- 
fused to  work  on  that  day;  hence  the  Japanese  authori- 
ties made  Sunday  a weekly  holiday  for  all  who  wished 
it.  The  first  step  was  thus  taken  for  the  beginning  of 
our  Christian  Sunday.  The  trading  people  and  farmers 
paid  no  attention,  but  went  on  with  their  ordinary  busi- 
ness, and  those  not  Christian  do  so  still.  And  (2)  the 
taking  down  of  the  public  edict  boards  against  the  Chris- 
tians. This  was  done  by  the  government  partly  for 
political  reasons,  and  a sort  of  halfway  apology  was 
made  to  the  Christian  haters  for  it;  but,  all  the  same,  it 
gave  the  cause  of  missions  much  advantage.  It  put 
Christian  preaching  upon  a different  basis.  No  longer 
could  any  fanatic  say  that  the  “Jesus  doctrine”  was 
forbidden  by  the  government,  no  longer  say  that  being 
a Christian  was  a crime  punishable  by  death. 


358 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


Again,  in  this  time  the  missionary  force  was  doubled. 
Three  new  missionary  societies  entered  the  held  for  the 
hrst  time — namely,  the  Methodist  Episcopal  (United 
States),  the  United  Presbyterian  (Scotch),  the  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  (English),  later  the 
Cumberland  Presbyterian  (United  States),  and  English 
Baptists.  By  the  year  1882  there  was  a force  of  one 
hundred  and  forty-nine  male  and  female  missionaries, 
exclusive  of  w:  res,  representing  eighteen  societies, 
American  and  English.  Not  only  so,  but  they  were 
thenceforth  more  successful,  and  better  able  to  extend 
their  operations.  Hitherto  little  or  no  preaching  had 
been  attempted  outside  of  the  ‘ 4 treaty  concessions.” 
But  the  missionaries  felt  that  their  work  was  for  the 
millions  of  Japanese,,  and  were  anxious  to  escape  the 
narrow  limits  of  the  foreign  concessions,  where  so  few 
Japanese  lived.  They  longed  to  go  forth  to  preach  to 
the  teeming  cities  beyond.  To  their  joy  they  had  won 
sufficiently  the  confidence  of  the  rulers  to  get  passports 
of  travel  into  the  interior,  and  so  there  sprang  up  a num- 
ber of  publicly  advertised  preaching  places  in  Tokyo, 
Yokohama,  Osaka,  and  other  cities;  at  first  in  the  houses 
or  inns  of  a few  willing  natives.  Afterward^  these 
preaching  meetings,  not  without  some  fear,  were  opened 
in  the  interior  cities,  and  became  the  centers  of  a few 
probationers.  These  inquirers,  besides  hearing  the 
preaching,  were  organized  into  classes  for  special  in- 
struction and  prayer,  the  New  Testament,  catechism, 
creed,  and  commandments  being  the  subject-matter  of 
instruction.  In  process  of  time,  after  due  examination 
as  to  their  faith  and  experience  in  the  things  of  Christ, 
these  were  baptized.  Later  still,  these  little  bands,  not- 
withstanding opposition  of  neighbors,  and  sometimes 
bitter  persecution,  grew  till  they  were  able  by  the  aid 


FIRST  PREACHING  IN  THE  INTERIOR. 


359 


of  missionaries  to  rent  or  build  small  chapels.  Then 
small  local  churches  were  organized,  and  meanwhile  the 
congregations  increased.  Some  were  drawn  out  to  hear 
by  curiosity,  some  to  mock,  and  others  by  soul  hunger, 
they  hardly  knew  for  what,  till  their  ears  caught  for  the 
first  time  the  strange  news  of  one  God  and  Father  in 
heaven  who  pities  and  saves  all  who  seek  him.  These 
preaching  places  and  small  congregations  were  regularly 
visited  by  the  missionaries  in  circuit,  and  instruction  giv- 
en them.  So  that  gradually  there  was  developed  a num- 
ber of  stations  besides  the  central  ones  where  reside  the 
missionaries.  We  have  seen  that  the  first  church  in  Yo- 
kohama had  only  twelve  members.  The  second  one  was 
organized  in  Tokyo  with  eleven.  It  was  thought  by 
some  to  be  a mistake,  the  organizing  of  such  feeble 
bands  into  churches,  but  in  five  years  the  Yokohama 
church  increased  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-six,  and 
the  Tokyo  church  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  members. 
In  one  decade  from  the  birth  of  the  first  little  church  there 
were  thirty- seven  stations  and  ninety-three  churches. 
It  is  said  that  the  first  extended  and  systematic  preach- 
ing tour  in  the  interior  cities  was  made  by  the  Rev.  Ir- 
vine H.  Correll,  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
When  he  started  forth  from  Yokohama  some  advised 
against  it  as  an  undertaking  too  perilous  to  life,  and 
that  he  could  accomplish  but  little  even  if  he  came  back 
alive.  Contrary  to  their  fears,  after  many  days  of  trav- 
el and  preaching,  he  returned  unhurt.  But  it  must  not 
be  imagined  that  the  hatred  is  all  gone,  for  it  continued 
for  a good  while  still.  Many  were  the  cases  of  perse- 
cution relentlessly  visited  upon  the  head  of  a newly  bap- 
tized Christian.  Mothers  have  been  known  to  threaten 
suicide  when  they  learned  that  their  sons  were  about  to 
receive  Christian  baptism.  Even  many  years  after  the 


360 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


period  under  consideration,  a daughter  who  had  been 
going  to  a mission  school  had  received  into  her  heart 
the  truth  of  Jesus,  had  in  fact  become  an  earnest  student 
of  the  New  Testament,  and  when  she  asked  her  father’s 
permission  to  be  baptized  he  got  angry,  shut  her  up  in 
her  room  for  many  days,  and  seized  her  New  Testament. 
But  determined  as  he  was  to  crush  out  her  Christian 
faith,  she  was  more  determined  still,  and  said:  “You 
may  take  away  the  leaves  of  my  Bible,  but  you  cannot 
take  the  truth  out  of  my  heart.”  She  was  so  patient 
and  so  firm  that  the  father  finally  relented  and  suffered 
her  to  receive  Christian  baptism. 

That  there  was  still  opposition  in  high  circles  is 
shown  by  a bitter,  anti-Christian  pamphlet  issued  about 
this  time,  and  indorsed  by  an  introduction  to  it  which 
was  written  by  the  famous  and  influential  Prince  Shi- 
madzu,  of  Satsuma.  The  charge  was  made  that  the 
teachings  of  Jesus  destroy  both  loyalty  to  the  state 
and  obedience  to  parents,  that  the  Christian  religion  is 
an  enemy  alike  to  the  country  and  family.  “There- 
fore the  spread  of  this  ‘evil  sect’  must  be  stayed  by 
putting  the  Christians  to  death  ! ” And  yet  the  Jesus 
doctrine  continued  to  spread. 

As  to  the  need  of  Christian  schools  the  missionaries 
in  Japan  almost  without  exception  held  the  broader  view 
of  Christian  missions.  They  were  convinced  that  the 
one  supreme  ideal,  as  well  as  the  one  unchanging  basis 
of  culture,  is  Christian.  The  story  of  the  small  classes 
started  and  carried  on  in  one  mission  is  the  same  story 
for  all  of  them.  F or  example,  take  the  Dutch  Reformed, 
English  Episcopal,  and  afterwards  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal at  Nagasaki,  and  we  see  that  at  first  there  were  a 
few  Japanese  who  wished  to  learn  English  and  other 
branches;  and  a little  later  some  of  these  were  in  the 


MEDICAL  MISSIONARIES. 


561 


Bible  class.  Then  the  Christian  ladies  connected  with 
the  missions  attempted  the  same  kind  of  instruction  for  a 
few  Japanese  girls.  Out  of  these  small  beginnings  the 
foundations  were  laid  for  day  and  boarding  schools,  male 
and  female,  and  for  Biblical  seminaries  for  the  training 
of  native  young  men  for  the  ministry.  The  Methodist 
Episcopal  Mission  was  perhaps  the  most  pronounced  as 
to  its  educational  policy.  It  was  their  declared  aim  to 
plant  a day  school  by  the  side  of  each  chapel. 

The  medical  work  in  connection  with  Dr.  Hep- 
burn’s dispensary  in  Yokohama  has  been  mentioned. 
This  was  the  very  first  mission  work  in  all  that  region. 
Drs.  Berry  and  Taylor  (Congregational)  and  Lanins 
(American  Episcopal)  and  Faulds  (Presbyterian)  were 
conspicuously  active  in  medical  work.  The  healing  of 
the  bodies  of  the  diseased  and  suffering  is  in  direct  line 
with  the  humane  work  of  our  Lord  when  he  dwelt 
among  men,  and  when  done  for  the  poor  without  mon- 
ey and  without  price  is  proof  of  the  benevolence  that 
lies  at  the  heart  of  Chistianity,  which  appeals  with 
power  to  the  tender  feelings  of  pagan  communities; 
is  something  that  cannot  be  spoken  against,  even  by  en- 
emies. Dr.  Berry  started  a medical  class  for  Japanese  in 
Kobe,  and  hospitals  opened  by  Drs.  Taylor  and  La- 
nins, where  the  poor  were  received  as  well  as  the  rich, 
made  a deep  impression  on  the  people.  These  Chris- 
tian doctors  were  not  only  kind,  jessing  what  they  had 
ever  known,  but  they  were  far  more  skillful  than  their 
native  doctors,  and  gave  relief  and  permanent  cures  in 
many  cases  where  the  Japanese  doctors  had  failed  ut- 
terly. Dr.  Berry  won  so  much  confidence  that  the 
Governor  at  Kobe  granted  him  permission  to  teach 
anatomy  by  dissection.  He  also  gained  great  influence 
by  his  advice  given  the  authorities  concerning  the  pre- 


I 


362 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


vention  of  epidemic  and  other  diseases  by  making  re- 
forms in  sanitation.  Very  soon  a change  was  noticeable 
in  the  health  of  the  prisoners  even.  Another  of  the 
earlier  medical  hospitals  was  that  of  Dr.  Faulds,  in  the 
foreign  concession  of  Tokyo.  The  banner  that  floated 
above  it  had  the  red  sun  of  the  Japanese  national  flag, 
but  within  it  was  the  white  cross.  Thousands  of  the 
afflicted  in  the  great  capital  flocked  to  his  hospital 
yearly.  Here,  too,  was  organized  a medical  class  for 
the  Japanese,  and  lectures  were  given  on  scientific  sub- 
jects. Dr.  Faulds  was  recognized  by  the  government, 
and  in  time  of  a dreadful  epidemic  was  clothed  with 
official  authority.  Ilis  hospital  was  very  popular  and 
had  a great  run  of  usefulness,  until  the  Japanese  gov- 
ernment, copying  the  example,  built  a hospital  of  its 
own. 

Still  another  form  of  missionary  work  was  the  liter- 
ary. As  in  pagan  Greece,  Rome,  and  England,  there 
were  absolutely  no  Christian  books;  so  in  Japan  and 
China  it  is  the  work  of  missions  to  translate  the  Bible 
into  the  native  tongue  and  publish  Christian  books  and 
tracts  and  circulate  them.  The  first  book  ever  pub- 
lished by  a missionary  in  Japan  was  Dr.  Hepburn’s 
English- Japanese  Dictionary,  in  1867;  and  in  the  same 
year  he  issued  the  first  Christian  tract.  In  the  year 
1872  a convention  of  missionaries  met  in  Yokohama  to 
take  steps  for  the  translation  of  the  entire  New  Testa- 
ment. A translation  committee  was  organized  on  that 
day,  but  the  difficulties  were  many.  Even  after  the 
manuscript  may  have  been  finished  there  were  at  that 
time  no  movable  type  in  Japan,  the  old  Chinese  system 
of  block  type  being  still  in  use.  The  committee  finally 
completed  the  New  Testament  in  1880.  The  Old  Tes- 
tament was  completed  and  printed  in  1888. 


OSAKA  CONFERENCE. 


363 


Besides  the  Bible,  Christian  catechisms,  prayer  books, 
creeds,  and  other  Christian  literature  had  to  be  created. 
The  Japanese  are  a reading  people.  The  first  Chris- 
tian newspaper  published  in  Japan  was  started  in 
1876,  and  was  named  Weekly  Missionary , afterwards 
changed  to  Fukuin  Shimpo  (Gospel  News).  In  no 
country  is  there  so  great  an  opportunity  for  the  print- 
ing press  as  in  Japan. 

The  great  Osaka  Conference  was  held  about  the  mid- 
dle of  this  period.  This  Conference  of  a week,  rep- 
resenting all  the  missions,  was  in  many  senses  a great 
missionary  convocation.  This  was  the  first  time  that 
all  the  workers  had  met  in  solemn  and  yet  joyous  as- 
sembly, and  it  was  the  first  opportunity  the  younger 
men  ever  had  of  sitting  in  Conference  with  the  old  pio- 
neers. When  Dr.  Hepburn,  the  senior  chairman,  took 
the  chair,  he  spoke  with  a heart  deeply  moved  of  the 
attitude  of  the  country  toward  foreigners  and  Chris- 
tianity, as  contrasted  with  what  it  was  when  he  ar- 
rived twenty  years  before.  When  entering  Yedo  Bay 
then,  he  did  not  even  know  whether  missionaries  would 
be  allowed  to  land.  The  hatred  was  then  so  fierce,  the 
laws  against  the  Christians  so  relentless,  he  scarcely 
hoped  for  a single  convert  for  many  years  to  come,  but 
had  prayed  with  his  wife  for  a home  and  field  in  Japan. 
His  prayers  had  been  answered,  and  far  more  than  his 
hopes  had  been  realized,  and  now  he  was  privileged  to 
preside  over  so  great  an  assembly  of  Christian  laborers. 
Many  and  important  were  the  discussions  of  that  Con- 
ference, but  more  important  still  was  the  new  spirit 
that  came  upon  all,  the  spirit  of  union,  of  hope  and  en- 
thusiasm for  the  redemption  of  Japan  from  paganism. 

Here  were  Americans,  Englishmen,  and  Scotchmen; 
Episcopalians,  Baptists,  and  so  on,  all  agreeing  in  love 


364 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


to  sink  out  of  sight  their  smaller  differences  and  to 
magnify  the  essentials  of  their  common  gospel.  This 
spectacle  of  brotherly  love  between  different  national- 
ities and  branches  of  Protestant  Christianity,  deeply 
impressed  the  native  Christians.  They  understood  that 
the  Protestant  missionaries  were  one  at  heart  and  truly 
zealous  for  the  salvation  of  their  nation. 

Hitherto,  even  the  few  native  preachers  had  shared 
with  all  the  Japanese  some  of  the  same  inherited  preju- 
dice against  the  missionaries  because  they  were  for- 
eigners, and  had  underestimated  their  ability  because 
they  could  not  speak  the  Japanese  language  as  fluently 
as  themselves.  That  Osaka  Conference  gave  a power- 
ful impulse  to  all  missionary  operations,  and  marked  a 
new  era  of  success  in  the  history  of  missions.  The  im- 
mediate result  of  the  Conference  was  an  increase  in  the 
number  and  spiritual  depth  of  prayer  meetings  in  native 
churches.  The  prayer  meetings  begun  during  the  Con- 
ference were  continued  almost  daily  for  weeks,  not 
only  at  Osaka,  the  seat  of  the  Conference,  but  at  Kioto, 
Tokyo,  and  in  many  places  where  native  churches  had 
been  planted.  The  burden  of  all  the  prayers  both 
among  missionaries  and  native  Christians  was  for  the 
outpouring  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  results  were  first 
the  quickening  of  the  native  churches,  next  the  gather- 
ing in  of  multitudes  of  new  converts;  then  the  in- 
creased popularity  of  the  mission  schools,  and  the  wide 
spread  of  Christian  books,  tracts,  newspapers,  and 
magazines,  and  especially  of  the  New  Testament  in 
whole  or  in  parts.  Making  some  allowances  for  excess 
of  emotional  excitement,  there  is  no  question  as  to  the 
genuineness  of  the  revival  fires  that  burned  upon  many, 
altars.  Along  with  the  rising  tide  of  Christianity  in 
the  land,  there  was  a manifest  change  of  popular  senti- 


JAPANESE  KINDERGARTEN. 


(365) 


366 


JAPAN : COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


ment  respecting  foreign  ideas  and  things  in  general. 
This  was  seen  in  the  mission  schools  being  crowded 
with  eager  pupils  both  male  and  female. 

The  small  cuttings  set  in  the  ground  some  years  pre- 
vious in  the  treaty  ports  now  sprang  into  great  and 
widely  branching  trees  and  many  birds  lodged  in  the 
branches  thereof.  For  illustration,  at  Nagasaki,  the 
Dutch  Reformed  ana  Methodist  Episcopal  missions  each 
had  flourishing  day  and  boarding  schools,  and  the  for- 
mer a Biblical  seminary;  at  Osaka,  the  Presbyterians 
and  English  Episcopal  schools  were  crowded  to  over- 
flowing, and  the  latter  started  their  Divinity  School;  at 
Kobe  the  Congregationalists  had  their  girls’  school, 
probably  the  best-equipped  female  mission  school  in 
the  empire;  at  Yokohama  the  Presbyterians  rejoiced  in 
Ferris’s  Seminary  for  girls,  which  was  then,  and  still  is, 
so  widely  and  well  known;  in  Tokyo  the  Meiji  Gakuin, 
with  academic  and  theological  departments,  and  the 
Graham  Seminary  for  girls,  all  Presbyterian;  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  college  and  theological  seminary,  as 
well  as  their  splendid  girls’  school,  were  all  flourish- 
ing to  a remarkable  degree;  the  Protestant  Episco- 
palians were  equally  encouraged  with  their  St.  Paul’s 
Boys’  School  and  Divinity  School;  in  Kioto,  the  old 
capital,  besides  their  girls’  school  and  hospital  and 
school  of  nurses,  the  Congregationalists  founded  their 
famous  Doshisha  College.  In  several  important  inte- 
rior cities,  also,  mission  schools  were  founded  before 
the  end  of  this  period,  and  all  flourished.  The  substan- 
tial character  of  this  period,  notwithstanding  the  loose 
material  always  floated  in  during  a time  of  high  tide, 
is  seen  in  the  marked  growth  of  self-support  in  the  na- 
tive church,  as  well  as  in  the  rapid  development  of  a 
native  ministry.  Earlier,  perhaps,  than  in  any  other 


FAVORING  CIRCUMSTANCES. 


367 


mission  field  was  the  rise  of  influential  Japanese  pastors 
and  teachers.  This  was  a distinct  advantage,  but  it 
was  not  without  some  danger  to  the  healthy  culture  of 
the  native  churches. 

Other  outward  circumstances  helped  this  extension 
of  Christianity.  First,  was  the  disestablishment  of  the 
native  religions  by  the  government.  The  year  after  the 
Osaka  Conference,  the  state  priesthood  of  Shinto  and 
Buddhist  priests  was  abolished.  The  priests  were  no 
longer  appointed  officials  of  the  government  with  rank 
and  authority.  It  is  remarkable  how  all  corrupt  priest- 
hoods of  corrupt  religions  follow  even  the  bodies  of  the 
dead  with  oppressive  enactments.  By  . law  the  family 
names  had  to  be  registered  in  the  temple  books;  other- 
wise the  priests  could  deny  burial.  But  now  this  is 
likewise  abolished,  and  cemeteries  were  provided  acces- 
sible to  Christians  equally  with  others.  Not  that  the 
Christians  were  yet  able  to  secure  equal  rights  with 
others,  but  the  fact  that  Christians  had  some  rights  was 
now  recognized  by  the  government,  and  the  Shinto  and 
Buddhist  priests  were  deposed  from  official  rank  and 
authority.  Secondly,  as  the  return  of  Iwakura  in  1873 
from  his  visit  to  foreign  capitals  was  the  occasion  of 
beneficial  changes,  so  the  visit  of  Count  Ito  to  the 
countries  of  Europe  to  study  their  constitutions  and 
laws  and  his  return  to  Japan  had  a marked  influence  upon 
affairs.  Being  an  Imperial  Privy  Councilor,  he  changed 
the  thought  of  the  leading  men  of  the  country.  Charged 
with  the  distinguished  and  difficult  duty  of  framing  a 
constitution  for  Japan,  it  could  not  escape  his  notice 
that  in  a constitutional  government  religious  liberty 
was  accessary.  He  had  long  been  a zealous  champion 
of  the  Western  civilization.  It  is  stated  on  what  ap- 
pears to  be  reliable  authority  that  in  conversation  with 


(368) 


GRADUATING  CLASS  (CHRISTIANS). 


CHRISTIANITY  FAVORED. 


369 


Emperor  William  and  Prince  Bismarck  they  reminded 
him  that  “Christianity  was  not  a mere  human  inven- 
tion for  the  maintenance  of  influence  and  power,  hut 
was  a reality  in  the  hearts  of  men.”  Count  Ito  was 
too  able  a statesman  not  to  have  made  his  impressions 
known  and  felt  in  government  circles  respecting  re- 
ligious liberty  for  Japan.  Thirdly,  a marked  change  at 
any  rate  was  noticeable  in  educated  and  government 
circles.  Many  in  prominent  circles  either  openly  pro- 
fessed their  acceptance  of  Christianity  or  expressed  ad- 
miration for  its  moral  and  enlightening  teachings  with- 
out losing  their  standing.  A notable  example  of  this  fa- 
vorable turn  was  Mr.  F ukuzawa,  the  editor  of  a leading 
metropolitan  daily  ( The  Times)  and  the  principal  of  the 
most  famous  private  school  in  the  empire.  He  came  out 
in  a series  of  editorials  and  advocated  the  national  accep- 
tance of  Christianity,  not  admitting,  however,  that  he 
personally  needed  it;  but  for  its  gentle,  civilizing  influ- 
ence and  for  the  standing  it  would  give  Japan,  he  favored 
its  acceptance.  Fourthly,  it  must  be  confessed  that 
Christianity  was  favored  by  many  for  prudential  and 
political  reasons.  It  was  felt  that  such  a pro- Christian 
position  would  strengthen  the  chances  for  treaty  revi- 
sion, a thing  so  eagerly  desired,  and  place  Japan  upon  an 
equal  standing  with  the  great  Western  nations.  Hence 
not  unfrequently  government  officials  and  wealthy 
merchants  would  contribute  considerable  sums  in  sup- 
port of  Christian  schools  in  their  communities.  Count 
Itagaki,  for  example,  gave  the  site  for  the  building  of  a 
Christian  chapel  near  his  country  house,  but  he  was  by 
no  means  a believer;  but  even  doing  that  much  was  a 
public  recognition  of  the  Christian  religion.  Fifthly, 
there  was  a general  and  growing  desire  for  English  and 
a knowledge  of  the  Western  civilization  on  the  part  of 
24 


370 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


the  youth  of  the  country.  The  foreign  language,  cos- 
tumes, and  ways  were  fast  coming  into  favor  in  edu- 
cated and  official  circles  of  the  younger  generation; 
while  the  ignorant  and  belated  ways  of  their  parents 
and  elders,  ignorant  of  foreign  history  and  sciences, 
were  looked  down  upon.  Even  the  disuse  of  Chinese 
characters  in  writing  and  printing  the  Japanese  lan- 
guage was  seriously  thought  of,  and  a society  to  pro- 
mote the  use  of  the  Roman  characters  in  writing  Japa- 
nese was  organized  and  a magazine  was  published  as 
the  organ  of  this  language  reform.  In  fact,  Old  Japan 
was  about  to  be  swept  off  her  feet  nolens  volens , and  out 
into  the  swift  flood  of  Western  ideas  and  sentiments. 
Such  a movement,  while  right  in  its  direction,  was 
dangerous  in  the  extreme  to  the  best  interests  of  the 
nation. 

It  was  in  the  midst  of  this  flush  period  of  foreign 
ideas  that  three  missionary  societies  from  America 
founded  missions  in  Japan.  About  the  year  1886  the 
Southern  Methodists,  Southern  Presbyterians,  and  the 
Baptists  of  the  Southern  Convention  sent  laborers  to 
this  country,  and  it  is  a coincidence  that,  all  three  being 
from  the  same  Southern  section  of  the  United  States, 
occupied  the  southern  and  central  portions  of  Japan. 

As  for  the  Southern  Methodists,  who  took  Kobe  as 
their  headquarters  and  proposed  to  occupy  the  region  of 
the  Inland  Sea,  it  was  fortunate  that  their  pioneers  had 
seen  service  in  China.  Dr.  James  W.  Lambuth  had 
been  nearly  forty  years  a faithful  laborer  there;  and  his 
son,  Dr.  Walter  R.  Lambuth,  had  been  born  there, 
and,  after  completing  his  education  in  America,  had 
returned  as  a medical  missionary.  With  apostolic  zeal 
and  labors  abundant,  these  men  were  remarkably  suc- 
cessful in  winning  quick  access  to  the  hearts  of  the 


ORGANIZED  ENEMIES. 


371 


Japanese.  With  uncommon  rapidity  circuits  were  laid 
out  and  mission  stations  occupied,  small  churches  or- 
ganized, and  schools,  male  and  female,  founded.  It 
was  also  fortunate  that  Bishop  A.  W.  Wilson,  D.D., 
LL.D.,  was  in  episcopal  charge,  and  was  in  person 
upon  the  ground  in  those  early  days  of  this  young  mis- 
sion. 

The  other  two  sister  missions,  Southern  Presbyte- 
rian and  Baptist,  were  also  not  without  success  in 
those  regions.  The  former  is  particularly  strong  in  its 
two  centers,  the  cities  of  Kochi  and  Nagoya;  the  latter 
is  well  planted  at  several  points  on  the  coasts  of  the 
Inland  Sea,  and  has  a girls’  school  at  Moji  and  one  at 
Himeji.  It  seems  to  be  a fact  that  the  representatives 
of  these  Southern  missions  had  a quick  insight  into  the 
peculiarities  of  Japanese  character,  and  have  been  able 
to  work  with  a good  degree  of  harmony.  The  Japa- 
nese are  a chivalrous  people,  and  this  must  be  recog- 
nized and  met  in  the  same  spirit. 

We  would  not  close  this  period  leaving  the  impres- 
sion that  Christianity  has  conquered  a peace  in  Japan. 
On  the  contrary,  adversaries  at  the  close  of  this  period 
made  a strong  rally  in  the  name  of  the  native  religions. 
Every  effort  was  made  by  the  priests  and  devotees  of 
Shintoism  and  Buddhism  to  stir  up  the  prejudice  and 
keep  alive  the  hatred  of  the  tTesus  doctrine  and  the 
cross. 

In  the  island  of  Shikoku  a society  named  Yasu 
Taji  (“Jesus  enemies”)  was  organized.  The  Shintoists 
joined  with  the  Buddhists  in  this  hostile  movement. 
Take,  as  example,  the  threatening  letter  sent  to  four 
Congregational  missionaries  then  residing  in  Kioto, 
and  signed,  “Patriots  in  the  peaceful  city,  believers  in 
Shinto.”  The  letter  ran  in  part  as  follows:  “To  the 


BISHOP  ALPHEUS  W.  WILSON,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
A Leader  of  Missions. 


(373) 


374 


japax:  country,  court,  people. 


four  American  barbarians,  Davis,  Gordon,  Learned, 
and  Greene:  You  come  with  sweet  words  in  your  mouth, 
but  a sword  in  the  heart;  bad  priests,  American  barba- 
rians, four  robbers.  You  have  come  from  a far  coun- 
try with  the  evil  religion  of  Christ  and  as  slaves  of  the 
Japanese  robber,  Xeesima.  With  bad  teaching  you  are 
gradually  deceiving  the  people;  but  we  know  your 
hearts  and  shall  soon  with  Japanese  swords  inflict  the 
punishment  of  heaven  upon  you.  . . . Hence  take 

your  families  and  go  quickly.”  When  we  recall  how 
many  of  the  Japanese  have  been  assassinated,  and  that, 
according  to  the  code  of  Old  Japan,  it  was  honor- 
orable  to  murder  a man  for  revenge  and  for  patriotism, 
if  it  had  been  openly  announced  beforehand,  we  cannot 
think  such  a letter  merely  a piece  of  bravado.  Had  not 
the  police  been  very  vigilant,  the  threat  would  probably 
have  been  carried  out.  The  means  employed  to  check  the 
spread  of  Christianity  were  various:  scurrilous  pam- 
phlets and  magazines  forbidding  their  followers  to  rent 
houses  to  the  Christians  for  chapels,  persuading  a hus- 
band to  divorce  his  wife  because  she  had  been  a Chris- 
tian, and  so  on.  Others,  with  better  views,  attempted 
reforms  in  Buddhism  itself,  and  persuaded  the  priests 
to  stir  out  of  their  ignorance  and  laziness.  Even  edi- 
tors of  non-Christian  papers,  while  professing  no  belief 
in  the  Christian  faith,  warned  the  Buddhist  leaders  that 
they  could  not  hold  their  own  against  the  energetic 
propaganda  of  the  missionaries  if  they  did  not  arouse 
themselves  and  reform  abuses. 

From  the  missionaries  many  of  the  Buddhists  learned 
methods  of  working.  They  established  a college  at 
Kioto,  their  seat  and  center.  The  writer  has  himself 
seen  upon  the  shelves  of  its  library  English  books  upon 
the  Bible,  and  has  met  young  Buddhist  priests  upon 


NEESIMA  GOES  TO  AMERICA. 


375 


the  cars  with  New  Testaments  in  their  hands.  Their 
aim  was  to  study  the  Jesus  doctrine  so  as  to  demolish 
it.  Girls’  schools,  young  men’s  associations,  copied 
after  the  Young  Men’s  Christian  Association,  Sunday 
schools,  and  preaching  meetings  were  opened  in  many 
places.  This  uncommon  activity  of  the  Buddhists 
shows  clearly  that  they  felt  that  they  were  losing 
ground,  losing  their  hold  upon  the  people.  And  they 
were  losing.  The  number  of  pilgrimages  and  attend- 
ants upon  festivals  as  well  as  regular  worshipers  at 
temples  and  shrines  had  decreased,  and  there  was  like- 
wise a marked  falling  off  in  the  receipts  from  contribu- 
tions. As  we  shall  see  later,  the  strongest  and  last 
rally  against  Christianity  came  from  Shintoism. 

As  previously  stated,  the  gospel  bore  fruit  in  Japan  in 
the  rise  of  influential  native  pastors  and  teachers  sooner 
than  in  any  other  foreign  held.  Conspicuous  above  all 
his  fellows  was  Joseph  Hardy  Neesima,  son  of  a Samurai. 
So  glad  was  his  father  when  a son  was  born,  he  exclaimed, 
“ Shimeta”  (“I  have  got  it”),  and  this  became  his  name. 
He  had  a yearning  for  knowledge  in  early  youth,  and  was 
led  to  think  about  the  true  God  by  reading  in  the  be- 
ginning of  a manual  of  geography  : “In  the  beginning 
God  created  the  heaven  and  the  earth.”*  This  he  con- 
trasted with  many  legendary  gods  of  his  own  country, 
and  it  made  him  dissatisfied.  At  that  time  death  was 
the  punishment  for  every  Japanese  who  left  the  country 
without  permission  from  the  government,  but  stronger 
than  the  fear  of  death  was  his  longing  for  the  truth  and 
the  wonders  of  the  Western  countries.  Finally,  after 
several  failures,  he  got  himself  taken  aboard  a foreign 
ship  loading  at  Hakodate  for  Shanghai.  Under  cover 

*It  is  a pity  that  theistic  or  Christian  truth  is  now  so 
little  recognized  in  our  modern  schoolbooks. 


<53 


NEESIMA  VISITS  EUROPEAN  CAPITALS. 


377 


of  darkness  he  went  in  a little  huckster’s  boat  to  the 
ship,  and,  to  escape  the  search  of  the  police,  had  to  hide 
himself  aAvay  until  she  sailed.  The  kind  captain  gave 
him  free  passage  to  Boston,  in  consideration  of  which 
he  acted  as  a servant  boy,  performing  menial  service, 
naturally  despised  by  all  Samurai.  Landing  in  Bos- 
ton, the  captain  brought  him  to  the  owner  of  the  ship, 
Mr.  Joseph  Hardy,  a zealous  Christian  man  and  member 
of  the  Missionary  Board  of  the  Congregational  Church. 
In  Mr.  Hardy  young  Neesima  found  a father  (Joseph 
Hardy  was  his  baptism  name  received  in  America),  and 
in  his  family  a Christian  home.  The  young  man’s 
heart  poured  itself  forth  in  the  following  prayer : “ O 
God,  if  you  have  eyes,  look  upon  me;  if  you  have  ears, 
hear  me;  with  all  my  heart  I wish  to  read  the  Bible 
and  to  become  civilized  through  the  Bible.”  Mr.  Har- 
dy, his  foster  father,  kindly  educated  him,  first  at  Phil- 
ip’s Academy,  then  at  Amherst  College,  and  last  at  An- 
dover Seminary.  At  that  time  no  missionary  of  the 
Congregational  Church  had  been  sent  to  Japan,  and  he 
resolved  to  be  a missionary  to  his  jjeople.  In  1871  he 
was  commanded  by  Viscount  Mori,  then  Minister  from 
Japan  to  our  government  at  Washington,  to  go  with 
Prince  Iwakura’s  embassy  as  its  interpreter.  Being- 
afraid  to  leave  the  United  States,  he  was  pardoned  for 
leaving  Japan,  and  as  he  accompanied  the  embassy  to 
the  great  capitals  of  Europe,  and  saw  with  eager  eyes 
their  great  institutions,  he  was  seized  with  the  idea 
which  decided  his  future  career — namely,  that  the  civ- 
ilization of  Europe  and  America  was  based  upon  Chris- 
tian education,  and  he  therefore  determined  to  found  a 
Christian  school  for  his  people  and  a school  where  na- 
tive teachers  might  be  trained.  Traveling  with  the  em- 
bassy, he  was  brought  into  relation  with  men  who  were 


378 


JAPAN!  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


then  and  afterwards  leaders  in  Japan’s  public  affairs, 
such  as  Iwakura,  Ito,  and  Kido.  He  returned  from 
Europe  to  America,  and  was  in  1874  appointed  a mis- 
sionary to  JajDan.  About  to  sail,  he  was  allowed  to  ad- 
dress the  annual  meeting  of  the  Missionary  Board,  and 
his  address  was  with  so  much  power,  as  he  pleaded  for 
his  native  country  in  its  darkness,  that  all  hearts  were 
moved.  He  asked  for  means  to  found  a Christian  col- 
lege. He  had  written  out  his  speech  in  full,  but  did 
not  use  it.  The  night  before  he  spent  several  hours 
wrestling  in  prayer  to  God  for  his  country,  and  so  the 
next  day  laid  aside  his  written  speech,  and  poured  out 
his  soul  in  impassioned  appeal  that  melted  his  hearers. 
The  immediate  response  was  $3,500  for  the  purpose  of 
starting  the  Christian  school. 

Arriving  in  Japan,  he  joined  the  Congregation alist 
missionaries  in  Kioto,  and  with  them  started  an  acad- 
emy and  a theological  school  under  the  name  of  the 
“Doshisha.”  This  school,  begun  in  1875  with  only 
eight  pupils  in  rented  rooms  little  better  than  sheds, 
grew  rapidly  into  a flourishing  institution.  By  his 
earnestness,  constancy  of  purpose,  and  acquaintance 
with  the  influential  leaders  of  the  country,  the  Govern- 
or of  Kioto,  and  cabinet  ministers  in  Tokyo,  he  was 
enabled  to  enlist  an  interest  in  this  school  on  ‘the  part 
of  Japanese  men  of  means  and  influence.  As  a result 
he  secured  an  endowment  fund  of  70,000  yen  from  the 
Japanese,  much  of  it  given  by  his  non- Christian 
friends. 

He  became  clearly  convinced  of  the  delusion  and  dan- 
ger to  many  of  his  countrymen  who  were  grasping  for 
the  external  benefits  of  Western  civilization  and  mere 
intellectual  culture  based  upon  the  Western  sciences. 
He  said:  “The  spirit  of  Christianity  penetrates  every- 


DEATH  OF  NEESIMA. 


379 


thing  even  to  the  bottom,  so  that,  if  we  adopt  only  the 
material  elements  of  civilization,  and  leave  out  religion, 
it  is  like  building  up  a human  body  without  blood.” 
Hence  his  cry  was:  “Christian  education,  and  for  this 
purpose  a Christian  university.”  To  accomplish  this  he 
laid  himself  out  day  and  night,  planning,  working,  and 
praying.  A university  was  projected  with  several  de- 
partments, and  from  America  $100,000  was  received 
for  the  founding  of  the  department  of  natural  sciences. 
But  he  was  not  permitted  to  see  his  hopes  fulfilled.  In 
January,  1890,  being  only  forty- seven  years  old,  he  was 
taken.  His  labor  had  been  too  much  for  his  strength. 
Two  days  before  his  death  he  called  his  friends  to  his 
bed  and  exhorted  them.  Arousing  all  his  remaining 
strength,  he  pointed  out  on  a map  certain  cities  that 
should  be  occupied  by  gospel  workers,  and  for  two  of 
them  engaged  personally  to  bear  the  expense  of  send- 
ing preachers  there  at  once.  Thus  passed  from  Japan 
one  who  was  perhaps  the  greatest  of  all  her  Christian 
subjects.  He  united  the  spirit  of  Old  Japan  with  faith 
in  Christ  and  heartiest  devotion  to  him,  probably  as 
perfectly  as  any  Japanese  Christian  in  the  whole  na- 
tion. He  loved  his  country,  appreciated  the  better  ele- 
ments of  her  civilization,  such  as  obedience  to  parents, 
self-denial,  simplicity  of  life,  and  unswerving  honor, 
all  of  which  had  been  instilled  into  his  heart  as  the 
son  of  a Samurai;  but  sawr  how  the  Christian  civiliza- 
tion of  America  was  immeasurably  superior  to  the  pa- 
gan of  his  own  nation.  Educated  in  all  the  culture 
of  America,  full  of  trust  in  God,  and  withal  personally 
modest  and  courageous,  he  was  a living  bond  of  union 
between  the  missionaries  and  his  native  brethren;  and 
sometimes  such  a man  vcas  needed. 

The  Roman  Catholics,  after  having  been  forbidden 


(380) 


PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  KOBE. 


DENOMINATIONAL  STATISTICS. 


381 


for  more  than  two  hundred  years,  entered  Japan  again 
when  the  country  was  opened  by  the  Americans;  but, 
being  under  dark  suspicion,  they  were  for  many  years 
compelled  to  work  in  a very  quiet,  unseen  way.  As 
previously  stated,  all  of  the  Catholic  believers,  de- 
scendants of  the  Christians  of  the  sixteenth  and  sev- 
enteenth centuries,  who  would  not  renounce  their 
faith  were  torn  from  their  native  villages  and  distrib- 
uted among  the  various  provinces.  In  1873  they  were 
released,  and  since  that  time  the  priests  of  the  llomisli 
Church  have  been  diligently  laboring,  and  have  estab- 
lished orphanages,  convents,  schools,  and  churches  in 
many  sections  of  the  country.  They  now  have  4 bish- 
ops, 157  male  and  102  female  missionaries,  246  congre- 
gations, with  a total  of  adherents,  including  children, 
of  53,000. 

The  Russo-Greek  Church,  presided  over  by  the  ven- 
erable Bishop  Nicolai,  has  had  a mission  since  1870, 
but  is  not  making  rapid  progress.  Howbeit  the  Russian 
cathedral  is  by  far  the  most  magnificent  ecclesiastical 
edifice  in  Tokyo.  Built  upon  an  eminence,  it  is  a con- 
spicuous building  as  seen  from  several  quarters  of  the 
great  city.  Being  so  much  higher  than  the  Emperor’s 
palace,  and  standing  upon  an  eminence,  the  imperial 
premises  are  easily  visible  from  the  lofty  dome,  which 
fact  at  first  caused  the  Japanese  to  murmur,  but  the 
authorities  permitted  the  structure  to  be  finished  not- 
withstanding the  murmurs.  The  statistics  show  a 
membership  of  24,531  and  169  churches. 


(382) 


OPENING  OF  THE  FIRST  JAPANESE  PARLIAMENT. 


CHAPTER  III. 

LATER  DEVELOPMENTS  (. 1889-1899 ). 

The  First  Parliament. — In  accordance  with  the  con- 
stitution proclaimed  in  1889,  an  election  was  held, 
and  the  first  national  representative  Diet  was  opened  in 
Tokyo,  1893. 

The  right  of  suffrage  is  quite  limited:  only  those 
whose  annual  income  tax  amounts  to  yen  15  and  who 
are  twenty-five  years  old  are  allowed  to  vote.  The 
Diet  consists  of  two  houses,  the  Lords  and  the  Com- 
mons. It  was  opened  by  the  Emperor  with  great  cere- 
mony, and  the  members  were  all  dressed  in  the  pre- 
scribed “Prince  Alberts.”  But,  being  the  first  experi- 
ment in  free  representative  government,  it  could  scarce- 
ly be  expected  that  such  a body  of  men,  with  no  train- 
ing in  such  duties,  should  be  able  to  do  great  things,  or 
avoid  serious  blunders  in  what  they  attempted.  Unac- 
customed to  free  and  open  debate  upon  public  meas- 
ures, there  was  some  abuse  of  their  prerogatives  upon 
the  floor,  some  unruly  spirits,  a disposition  to  be  in- 
subordinate to  the  presiding  officer,  and  a factious  tem- 
per was  particularly  manifest  toward  the  cabinet  min- 
isters, who  appeared  on  occasion  and  addressed  the 
Lower  House  upon  measures  proposed  by  the  govern- 
ment. Very  quickly,  too,  the  body  broke  into  numer- 
ous parties,  and  legislation  was  blocked. 

Like  the  English  House  of  Commons,  voting  the  gov- 
ernment budget  submitted  by  the  ministry  lies  with  the 
Lower  House.  It  was  here  that  a serious  conflict 
quickly  arose  between  the  Opposition,  led  by  the  Lib- 
erals, and  the  Government,  represented  by  the  Cabi- 

(383) 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY,  COURT.  PEOPLE. 


384 

net.  The-  real  issue  back  of  all  questions  of  budgets 
and  policies  was  whether  or  not  the  ministry  was  re- 
sponsible to  the  Parliament,  or  to  the  Throne  only. 
By  the  constitution  the  cabinet  ministers  were  appoint- 
ed and  removed  by  the  Emperor,  and  hence  the  con- 
servative or  government  party  held  that  the  ministry 
was  responsible  to  the  Throne  only,  and  not  in  any 
wise  to  the  Parliament,  for  their  policy  or  measures, 
and  that  to  insist  upon  responsibility  to  Parliament 
was  to  invade  the  sovereign  rights  of  the  Emperor. 

The  answer  to  this  was  the  refusal  of  the  Lower 
House  to  grant  the  budget  for  governmental  expenses. 
The  rejoinder  from  the  Throne  was  the  immediate  pro- 
roguing of  Parliament.  In  due  time  a new  Parliament 
convened.  It  took  the  same  stand  and  met  the  same 
fate — dissolved  and  sent  home  by  imperial  edict.  The 
defeat  of  the  Opposition  was  oft  repeated,  and  as  often 
resolutely  renewed.  Thus  the  conflict  went  on  until 
1898,  when  at  last  victory  was  won  in  the  overthrow  of 
the  ministry — the  cabinet  was  forced  to  resign.  We 
may  conclude,  then,  that  from  that  time  the  ministry 
was  to  be  held  responsible  to  the  Parliament  as  well  as 
to  the  Throne,  that  the  regime  of  the  party  govern- 
ment, as  in  England,  has  been  inaugurated  in  Japan. 
All  well-wishers  of  this  nation,  and  all  concerned  for 
the  political  reformation  of  Asia’s  despotic  systems, 
are  watching  with  uncommon  interest  the  outcome  of 
constitutional  government  in  that  country.  No  doubt 
in  process  of  time  there  will  be  a widening  of  popular 
suffrage;  but  it  is  well  that  for  the  present  the  sover- 
eign should  continue  to  rule  with  a strong  hand;  for 
the  people  are  not  yet  ready  for  a popular  form  of  gov- 
ernment. More  than  once  the  Throne  has  saved  the 
nation  from  political  shipwreck. 


THE  CHINA-JAPAN  WAK. 


385 


The  War  with  China. — Since  the  times  of  the  Em- 
press Jingo  Kogo  (circ  200  A.D.)  Japan  has  claimed 
some  sort  of  suzerainty  over  Korea.  But  China  has 
ever  claimed  the  same.  Sometimes  Korea’s  rulers  sent 
presents  and  paid  court  to  one  and  then  the  other,  and 
sometimes  carried  water  on  both  shoulders  by  sending 
what  was  considered  as  tribute  to  both  at  once.  Since 
Japan  entered  upon  her  career  of  enlightenment  and 
political  reform  she  has  looked  with  impatience  upon 
China’s  unhealthful  influence  in  Korea.  The  civil  dis- 
orders and  barbarity  there  were  sources  of  danger  to 
the  peace  of  Japan  herself.  A treaty  was  entered 
into  with  China,  regulating  their  mutual  relations  to 
Korean  affairs,  and  in  the  spirit  of  that  treaty  Japan 
attempted  to  lead  the  weak  and  tottering  little  king- 
dom along  a better  path,  but  invariably  China’s  posi- 
tion was  reactionary.  Civil  disorders  increased,  and 
several  attacks  were  made  upon  the  Japanese,  not  only 
in  the  treaty  ports,  but  also  in  Seoul,  the  Korean  cap- 
ital. Japan  dispatched  troojos  thither  to  protect  her 
own  nationals  and  her  trade.  This  China  resented  in 
such  a way  that  war  was  declared,  and  hostilities  began 
in  1894.  Japan’s  armies  quickly  took  possession  of 
Seoul,  and  the  seat  of  war  was  on  Korean  soil,  or  in 
waters  contiguous.  All  the  world  knows  the  result. 
In  almost  every  battle,  whether  on  land  or  sea,  the 
Chinese  were  ingloriously  defeated.  China’s  war  ships 
being  either  captured  or  disabled,  the  war  having  been 
pushed  northward  into  Chinese  territory,  Mukden,  the 
ancient  Mantchoo  capital,  having  been  captured,  and  the 
Liau-Tung  peninsula  occupied  by  Japan’s  armies,  Pe- 
kin itself  was  in  danger  of  capture.  The  Chinese, 
therefore,  besought  the  American  Ministers  at  the 
court  of  Pekin  and  Tokvo  to  intercede  for  an  armistice 
25 


386 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


and  peace  negotiations.  To  this  Japan  agreed,  and  at 
once  suspended  fighting.  Li  Hung  Chang,  the  wily  dip- 
lomat, wras  sent  as  China’s  representative;  and  Japan’s 
was  the  able  statesman,  Count  Ito.  The  treaty  of 
peace  was  signed  at  Shimonoseki,  April,  1895.  Hon. 
John  W.  Foster,  President  Harrison’s  Secretary  of 
State,  was  besought  to  act  as  China’s  counselor  in  that 
critical  hour. 

By  the  treaty,  China  had  to  pay  an  indemnity  and  re- 
linquish to  Japan  the  island  of  Formosa  and  the  Liau- 
Tung  Peninsula;  but,  by  the  joint  remonstrance  of  Rus- 
sia, France,  and  Germany,  Japan  was  constrained  to 
cede  back  to  China  that  peninsula.  That  wTas  a very 
unjust  demand  upon  the  part  of  those  three  powers. 
By  all  the  rightful  claims  and  usages  of  the  conqueror 
in  war,  as  often  illustrated  in  the  history  of  Europe  and 
America,  Japan  had  a legitimate  claim  upon  the  Liau- 
Tung  Peninsula  for  the  purpose  of  making  it  an  integral 
part  of  her  own  empire.  But  she  yielded  to  the  inevi- 
table, not  being  able  to  contend  against  Russia,  backed 
as  she  was  by  France  and  Germany.  Nor  lias  Russia 
allowed  China  to  forget  that  she  befriended  her  in  the 
hour  of  humiliation.  It  is  not  probable  that  Japan  has 
forgotten  Russia’s  unjust  action  toward  herself;  and  if 
a good  opportunity  occurs  in  future  international  com- 
plications, the  Northern  Bear  will  be  made  to  suffer  for 
his  intermeddling:. 

Though  Japan  was  cut  to  the  heart  by  Russia’s  unjust 
action,  nevertheless  her  signal  and  quickly  won  victory 
over  ancient  China  had  come  as  a surprise  to  most  peo- 
ple in  th.e  Western  hemisphere.  They  had  thought  of 
the  “little  Japs”  as  either  a part  of  the  empire  of 
China,  or  at  least  as  only  a slightly  different  people; 
and  as  China  had  a vast  empire  of  territory  and  four 


JAPANESE  FLEET  AT  WEI-HAI-WEI. 


(387) 


388 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


hundred  million  people,  it  was  considered  a strange 
thing  that  she  should  be  brought  to  her  knees  and  suing 
for  peace  within  a twelvemonth  by  Japan,  with  only 
about  forty  millions. 

Well,  to  those  living  in  Japan,  and  acquainted  with 
the  actual  conditions  in  the  two  countries,  the  result  of 
the  war  was  no  surprise.  (1)  Japan’s  armies  and  navies 
were  trained  and  equipped  according  to  the  latest  and 
best  methods  of  war,  whereas  China’s  forces  had  not 
had  proper  training.  On  account  of  their  unconscion- 
able conceit,  the  Chinese  were  not  willing  to  take  suffi- 
cient instruction  from  foreign  military  officers.  The 
result  was,  their  generals  were  incompetent,  their  sol- 
diers undisciplined.  How  could  such  an  army  fight? 
(2)  In  the  hour  of  national  peril  there  was  no  national 
spirit  in  China  back  of  the  war.  The  Viceroy  of  Can- 
ton said:  “It  is  Li  Hung  Chang’s  war;  I’ll  not  send  my 
ships.”  (3)  In  fighting,  the  Japanese  were  at  their  best; 
the  Chinese,  at  their  worst.  The  former  are  a nation  of 
good  fighters;  the  latter  have  been  several  times  con- 
quered by  a people  inferior  in  numbers  and  resources  to 
themselves.  But  (4)  in  that  war  it  was  the  ideas  and 
methods  of  the  Western  nations  in  conflict  with  the 
worn-out  civilization  of  the  Orient. 

The  conduct  of  the  war  on  the  part  of  the  Japanese 
was  highly  creditable.  It  was  the  first  instance  of  w ar 
carried  on  by  an  Asiatic  nation  in  accordance  with  the 
high  ideals  of  the  Red  Cross  Society.  Chinese  pris- 
oners, the  wounded  and  dying,  were  treated  by  the 
Japanese  in  a humane  manner.  Only  in  one  instance 
(at  Port  Arthur,  and  that  under  the  most  trying  provo- 
cation) is  it  charged  against  Japanese  soldiers  that 
they  acted  with  barbarous  cruelty  toward  the  Chinese. 
These  severe  criticisms  have  been  challenged  as  unjust, 


THE  RESULTS  OF  THE  WAR. 


389 


and  it  remains  for  the  impartial  historian  to  decide 
whether  or  not  noncombatants  were  put  to  the  sword 
on  that  occasion.  Upon  the  whole,  high  praise  is  due 
alike  to  the  generals  in  the  field  and  the  high  officials  of 
the  War  Department  at  Tokyo  for  the  very  humane  and 
enlightened  conduct  of  the  war. 

The  Results  of  the  T Vcir. — As  to  the  eclat  won  in  the 
eyes  of  civilized  nations  there  can  be  no  question,  for 
Japan  has  arisen  to  an  international  position,  if  not  to 
the  rank  of  the  first  class  along  with  England  and  the 
United  States,  yet  certainly  to  that  of  a second-class 
power.  Neither  Russia  nor  England  can  afford  to  ig- 
nore Japan  hereafter  in  international  politics. 

As  for  Japan  herself,  the  war  was  a momentous  event. 
It  gave  a new  impetus  to  almost  every  branch  of  secular 
life.  It  caused  the  national  ambition  to  run  high.  By 
using  the  large  indemnity  received  from  China,  it  was 
believed  that  their  armies  and  navies  should  be  further 
increased,  so  as  to  make  Japan  the  dominant  power  in 
Asia.  Many  of  the  younger  men,  whose  ambition  and 
national  bigotry  were  beyond  their  sound  judgment, 
imagined  that  Japan  would  soon  be  in  a position  to  dic- 
tate terms  to  England  in  India,  taking,  of  course,  the 
hegemony  in  the  international  politics  of  Korea  and 
China. 

This  new  national  consciousness  put  extreme  empha- 
sis upon  armies,  fleets,  and  the  like  as  the  enduring 
foundation  of  a nation’s  greatness,  and  thereby  wrought 
considerable  harm  by  forgetting  the  religious  and  moral 
side  of  the  nation’s  life.  Victory  is  often  more  hurtful 
than  defeat  The  Japanese  hurt  themselves  in  thus  at- 
taching undue  importance  to  war,  to  commerce,  and  to 
manufactures. 

Material  prosperity  was  more  noticeable  than  ever  be- 


390 


JAPAN : COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


fore  ill  the  history  of  the  nation.  As  the  government 
was  increasing  her  armies  and  navies,  simultaneously  a 
general  spirit  of  enterprise  sprang  up  all  over  the  coun- 
try. Money  was  flush,  prices  ran  high,  scores  of  new 
manufacturing  and  commercial  enterprises  appeared; 
Japan  had  entered  upon  a period  of  unparalleled  pros- 
perity. 

And  forsooth  murmurs  were  heard  in  far-off  America 
and  England,  respecting  Japan  as  the  manufacturing 
rival  of  Manchester  and  Falls  River.  Something  was 
said  about  cheap  labor  in  Japan  and  twelve-dollar  bicy- 
cles! But  many  of  the  new  enterprises  were,  like  bub- 
bles, soon  to  burst;  many  others,  however,  continued  to 
thrive,  as  the  following;  figures  for  1895-96  show  the  ex- 
istence  of  68  cotton  mills,  running  1,250,000  spindles, 
consuming  200,000,000  pounds  of  raw  cotton.  In  1895 
there  were  2,758  factories  of  all  kinds;  horse  and  water 
power,  54,576.  From  1880  to  1895  the  area  of  rice  cul- 
ture increased  from  5,000,000  to  6,000,000  acres;  silk- 
worm raising  has  more  than  trebled , and  tea  culture 
more  than  doubled. 

Expansion  of  Foreign  Trade. — As  a further  result  of 
the  enterprise  of  the  times,  the  Japanese  government 
granted  subsidies  to  new  steamship  lines,  so  that,  be- 
sides a great  increase  in  the  coastwise  trade,  and  besides 
the  foreign  lines  already  running  to  China,  Siberian 
Russia,  India,  and  Australia,  new  lines  were  put  on, 
making  regular  trips  to  French  and  English  ports,  and 
to  the  American  ports  on  the  Pacific  coast.  In  1872 
there  were  only  96  foreign-built  vessels;  in  1895  the 
number  had  increased  to  827,  with  a total  tonnage  of 
213,000;  the  total  export  and  import  trade  in  1875  was 
only  $47,000,000,  but  in  1897  it  waff  equal  to  $382,- 
000,000. 


ANTI-FOREIGN  SENTIMENT. 


391 


Internal  Improvements , too,  took  on  new  life.  The 
harbor  of  Yokohama  was  improved  at  heavy  expense, 
and  a gigantic  scheme  has  been  projected  for  the  en- 
larging and  deepening  of  Osaka  harbor,  so  as  to  admit 
ocean  steamers.  In  many  of  the  larger  cities  water- 
works were  put  in,  iron  pipes  for  the  same  being  brought 
from  Nashville  and  Birmingham;  and  consequently  the 
rate  of  disease  and  death  is  being  diminished.  For  To- 
kyo  a grand  scheme  of  improvements  has  been  adopted, 
including  waterworks  and  the  widening  of  principal 
streets,  the  purpose  being  to  make  it  one  of  the  great 
capital  cities  of  the  modern  world.  In  1898  Japan  had 
about  three  thousand  miles  of  railway,  and  bought  from 
the  United  States  sixty-six  locomotive  engines — note 
well. 

Feeling  against  Foreigners  and  Christianity.  — The 
rapid  progress  of  Christian  missions  and  the  sentiment 
in  favor  of  everything  foreign  reached  their  climax  about 
the  year  1890.  From  that  time  the  pendulum  of  na- 
tional feeling  began  to  swing  back  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion. Gradually  the  old  anti-foreign  spirit  rose  higher 
and  higher.  There  were  several  causes  for  this. 

In  the  first  place,  there  was  disappointment  because 
the  old  treaties  with  foreign  powers  had  not  been 
changed.  They  had  earnestly  wished  for  the  old  trea- 
ties, with  their  extraterritorial  jurisdiction  in  favor  of 
foreigners,  to  be  repealed,  but  the  foreign  powers  had 
refused.  This  embittered  and  angered  the  nation. 
The  government  adopted  a more  rigorous  policy  in  re- 
gard to  passports  and  the  privileges  granted  to  foreign 
residents  and  visitors.  All  along  the  lines  of  official 
authority  the  policy  was:  “No  more  favors  to  foreign- 
ers. ” 

The  Buddhists  quickly  caught  the  idea,  and  stirred 


392 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


up  the  old  prejudices  of  the  people  against  the  Chris- 
tians. Public  meetings  of  Christians,  hitherto  so  pop- 
ular in  the  theaters  and  even  on  the  streets,  were  now 
to  be  systematically  broken  up  by  rowdies  sent  for  the 
purpose  by  the  priests.  On  several  occasions  violence 
was  threatened,  and  the  Christian  lecture  meetings  in 
the  theaters  had  to  be  given  iqi.  The  chapels  and 
churches  were  in  many  places  invaded,  and  windows 
and  lamps  smashed.  At  Xogoya,  a strong  Buddhist 
seat,  the  house  of  one  of  the  missionaries  had  to  be 
guarded  by  the  police  for  about  three  months,  and  the 
assembling  of  the  native  Christians  for  worship  was 
much  interfered  with.  Even  coolies  became  intolerably 
insolent  in  their  manner  toward  foreigners,  and  alterca- 
tions between  foreign  traders  and  travelers  and  Japa- 
nese employees  became  fearfully  frequent.  Missionaries 
and  officials  of  foreign  legations  were  hooted  at  or  treat- 
ed to  stones  from  boys  in  the  streets  of  Tokyo.  To  the 
ladies  of  the  foreign  settlements  it  was  particularly  disa- 
greeable, liable,  as  they  were,  to  insult  at  any  time  when 
out  on  the  streets.  Everywhere,  and  in  everything,  the 
tension  of  feeling  was  high.  In  the  mission  schools,  and 
even  in  the  native  churches,  the  strong  nationalistic  feel- 
ing showed  itself  in  unseemly  ways  toward  the  missiona- 
ries. Newspapers,  magazines,  and  lecture  platforms  all 
reechoed  the  notion  that  Japan  was  being  unjustly  treated 
by  the  foreign  nations — in  fact,  was  being  oppressed  by 
them.  Everything  the  foreigners  did  was  looked  at 
with  the  green  eyes  of  envy;  even  the  trade  they  had 
built  up  in  the  treaty  ports  with  foreign  countries  was 
looked  upon  as  a robbery  of  their  own  citizens,  because 
they  could  not  themselves  control  it.  It  shows  how 
national  prejudice  distorts  the  vision. 

Two  events,  both  of  them  very  discreditable,  took 


VISIT  OF  THE  RUSSIAN  PRINCE. 


393 


place,  that  illustrate  the  folly  and  passion  into  which 
the  nation  was  now  drifting.  The  one  was  the  attempt 
of  a Japanese  policeman  to  murder  the  crown  prince  of 
Russia.  He  who  is  now  the  Czar  of  all  Russia  was  mak- 
ing a visit  to  Japan,  and  was  out  with  his  suite,  in  jin- 
rikushas,  doing  the  sights  of  Kioto  and  its  environs.  As 
they  proceeded  along  the  way,  at  a neighboring  village, 
in  broad  daylight,  a policeman,  who  had  been  nursing 
his  anti-foreign  feelings  till  he  had  become  a fanatic,  see- 
ing the  distinguished  foreign  prince,  suddenly  fell  upon 
him  with  his  sword  and  tried  to  kill  him.  He  inflicted 
wounds  upon  the  prince’s  head.  This  came  near  plun- 
ging Japan  into  war.  The  Russian  prince  was  a guest 
of  the  nation,  and  the  very  officer  whose  duty  it  was  to 
protect  him  had  turned  upon  him  with  murderous  rage. 
The  Emperor  and  all  the  high  ministers  in  Tokyo  were 
both  alarmed  and  humiliated.  The  Emperor  himself 
went  ill  great  haste,  by  special  train,  to  Kioto  to  apolo- 
gize for  the  shameful  deed. 

The  officers  and  marines  of  the  Russian  squadron, 
then  lying  in  Kobe  harbor,  and  who  had  escorted  their 
prince  to  japan,  could  scarcely  be  restrained  from 
marching  instantly  to  Kioto,  where  he  lay  wounded. 
The  event  spread  alarm  throughout  the  land,  and  hu- 
miliation too.  The  people,  as  well  as  the  rulers,  knew 
they  could  not  cope  with  Russia  in  war,  and  they  had 
made  a miserable  exhibition  of  their  anti-foreign  feeling 
before  the  whole  world.  It  was  felt  that  the  fanatical 
and  anti-foreign  feeling  of  that  policeman  was  the  nat- 
ural outcome  of  the  anti-foreign  agitation  indulged  in 
by  the  press,  the  priests,  and  political  agitators.  It 
showed  plainly  that  if  such  violent  feeling  be  not 
checked  it  would  surely  bring  on  war  with  some  pow- 
erful foreign  nation.  And  besides,  to  a few  clear-head- 


394 


japan:  country,  court,  people: 

eel  statesmen  it  was  seen  that  such  anti-foreign  feeling 
was  defeating  the  very  object  for  which  the  government 
had  been  for  years  earnestly  laboring — namely,  the  re- 
rision  of  the  old  treaties.  Foreign  governments  would 
never  agree  to  treaties  placing  their  nationals  under  Jap- 
anese law  and  officers  as  long  as  such  national  prejudice 
against  foreigners  was  rife. 

Russia  acted  magnanimously,  accepted  the  apologies 
and  demanded  nothing.  The  Japanese  governor  of  the 
district  where  the  attempted  assassination  occurred  was 
deposed  and  the  murderous  policeman  was  put  to  death. 
The  crown  prince  was  ordered  from  St.  Petersburg  not 
to  go  to  Tokyo,  but  to  return  to  his  fleet  in  haste. 
This  incident  had  the  effect  of  opening  the  eyes  of  the 
nation,  and  the  journals  of  the  day  began  to  condemn 
the  absurd  and  dangerous  lengths  to  which  the  Japa- 
nese had  been  carried  by  their  anti-foreign  feeling. 

Another  event  alike  discreditable  was  the  expulsion 
of  Rev.  Mr.  Tamura  from  the  Presbyterian  ministry 
by  his  Japanese  brethren.  Mr.  Tamura,  pastor  of  a 
leading  church  in  Tokyo,  had  been  educated  in  Amer- 
ica, at  Rutgers  College  and  at  Princeton.  Being 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  our  social  usages,  marriage 
customs,  and  home  life,  and  seeing  the  contrast  to 
those  of  his  own  nation,  he  wrote  a little  book,  entitled 
“Japanese  Bride,”  published  by  the  Harpers.  In  the 
book  he  hit  off  a number  of  things  in  American  society, 
courtship,  and  marriage,  and  exposed  several  things  in 
the  marriage  and  home  life  of  the  Japanese  in  a bad 
light.  At  this  time  the  whole  nation  was  so  extreme- 
ly sensitive  to  criticism  that  even  the  Christians  were ' 
not  free  from  the  baleful  influence,  and  consequently 
charges  were  preferred  against  the  author  of  the  bright- 
ly written  little  book,  and  he  Avas  expelled  from  the 


UNITARIANISM  FAVORABLY  RECEIVED. 


395 


ministry  by  his  presbytery  in  the  city  of  Tokyo.  That, 
too,  was  a saddening  exhibition  of  what  national  preju- 
dice and  pride  will  do  for  a people.  Of  course  the  in- 
tense nationalistic  reaction  and  anti-foreign  feeling  were 
felt  in  the  work  of  the  missions  in  Japan,  in  their 
Christian  schools,  and  in  the  marked  decline  of  attend- 
ance upon  the  Christian  meetings.  The  churches  no 
longer  made  the  rapid  annual  increase  in  converts  as  in 
former  years.  Causes  other  than  political  and  nation- 
al were  working  to  put  a temporary  check  upon  the 
growth  of  the  native  Christian  Church. 

It  was  about  the  beginning  of  this  period  that  Uni- 
tarian propagandists  were  sent  over  from  Boston. 
Their  unfriendly  attitude  toward  the  evangelical  and 
orthodox  missions,  their  wise  use  of  the  Japanese  press 
in  disseminating  far  and  wide  their  principles,  and 
their  disposition  to  recognize  Buddhism  and  make  a 
sort  of  compromise  platform  between  it  and  liberal 
Christianity,  produced  a noticeable  effect  in  educated 
circles,  an  impression  favorable  to  liberal  ideas  in  reli- 
gion, and  against  the  orthodox  interpretation.  The 
impression  became  somewhat  prevalent  that  the  Unita- 
rian system  was  the  only  system  of  Christianity  that 
could  stand  the  test  of  modern  science  and  progressive 
thought.  Many  of  the  head  professors  in  the  higher  in- 
stitutions of  learning  had  imbibed  a materialistic  skepti- 
cism or  agnosticism,  justified,  as  they  claimed,  by  the 
recent  advances  in  the  field  of  natural  sciences.  Scien- 
tific skepticism  became  the  fashion  of  the  day  in  edu- 
cated circles  of  the  younger  men.  Many  of  them 
had  studied  in  Europe  and  America,  and  had  brought 
back  these  skeptical  views  concerning  Christianity 
from  the  foreign  universities  where  they  had  studied. 

It  came  to  pass  that  the  government  schools,  whose 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


39G 

foundations  the  evangelical  Christian  missionaries  had 
laid,  were  now  become  the  citadels  of  enmity  to  Chris- 
tianity and  nurseries  of  skepticism  respecting  all  reli- 
gion. A student  under  suspicion  of  attending  the 
meetings  of  the  Christians  was  made  to  feel  the  dis- 
approbation of  his  teachers  and  fellow-students  alike, 
and  various  means  were  resorted  to  in  order  to  break 
him  down.  We  therefore  see  that  the  causes  of  this 
anti-Christian  reaction  were  of  three  sources:  na- 
tional questions,  religion  (Buddhist  and  Shinto),  and  a 
perverted  form  of  modern  science.  Some  of  the  lead- 
ers in  education  and  politics  said:  “We  do  not  need 
religion  of  any  kind.  What  we  want  to  insure  a glo- 
rious future  for  our  beloved  country  are  armies  and  na- 
vies, commerce,  manufactures,  and  modern  education, 
with  plenty  of  natural  science  in  it.”  They  argued 
somewhat  after  this  fashion:  “Our  war  with  China 
has  proven  what  we  can  do  in  arms,  and  natural  science 
has  disproven  Christianity.  Why  then  trouble  our- 
selves about  religion?” 

The  opposition  to  Christianity  took  still  another 
turn  about  the  middle  of  this  period.  The  Emperor’s 
counselors  had  also  observed  that  the  anti-religious 
spirit  which  had  taken  possession  of  the  government 
schools  was  already  bringing  forth  bad  frliit  in  the 
loose  morals  of  the  students.  Examples  of  insubordi- 
nation to  authority  were  painfully  frequent  in  young 
Japan.  To  check  this  bad  tendency,  the  Emperor  is- 
sued a famous  “Rescript  on  Morals  in  Education,” 
which  was  ordered  to  be  read  at  stated  times  in  all  the 
schools  of  the  empire  for  a period  of  five  years.  This 
document  has  been  used  against  Christianity  by  many 
who  claim  that  the  Emperor’s  instructions  are  not  in 
harmony  with  Christian  morals  as  taught  by  the  mis- 


CHRISTIANITY  CHALLENGED. 


397 


sionaries  and  Japanese  preachers.  It  is  claimed  that 
loyalty  to  Jesus  Christ  as  Lord  over  men’s  hearts  and 
lives  is  disloyalty  to  the  Emperor  and  to  the  state. 
And  even  after  the  China  war,  in  which  the  Christian 
soldiers  proved  their  bravery  and  their  loyalty,  this  was 
still  a favorite  accusation  made  against  the  Christians. 

And  so,  in  1897,  a new  movement  against  Christian- 
ity was  started,  called  “Nippon  Shugi,”  the  object  of 
which  was  to  revive  Shintoism  in  a modified  form,  with 
the  Emperor  as  the  head  of  the  religion  of  Japan.  It 
was  an  effort  to  use  the  universal  reverence  of  the  na- 
tion for  its  Emperor  as  a barrier  against  the  acceptance 
of  the  faith  of  Christ.  Strange  to  say,  among  its  pro- 
moters were  professors  in  the  Imperial  University, 
some  of  whom  have  studied  in  our  American  universi- 
ties. A challenge  was  sent  forth  to  the  Christians  in 
the  following:  1.  “Can  the  worship  of  his  sacred 

majesty,  the  Emperor,  which  every  loyal  Japanese 
performs,  be  reconciled  with  the  worship  of  God  and 
Christ  by  the  Christians?  2.  Can  the  existence  of  au- 
thorities that  are  quite  independent  of  the  Japanese 
state — such  as  God,  Christ,  the  Bible,  the  pope,  the 
head  of  the  Greek  Church  (Tsar) — be  regarded  as 
harmless?  3.  Can  the  Japanese  who  is  a faithful 
servant  of  Christ  be  regarded  at  the  same  time  as  the 
faithful  servant  of  the  Emperor  and  a true  friend  of  his 
majesty’s  faithful  subjects?  or,  to  put  it  in  another 
way,  is  our  Emperor  to  follow  in  the  wake  of  West- 
ern Emperors,  and  to  pray:  ‘Son  of  God,  have  mercy 
on  me?’” 

And  yet  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  during  this  re- 
actionary time  Christianity  was  making  no  progress. 
A needed  sifting  of  the  Christians  took  place,  and 
while  some  fell  back  again  into  paganism,  or  into  no 


398 


JAPAN:  COrXTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


religion,  the  faith  of  others  was  strengthened.  The 
growth  of  the  Church,  though  slower,  was  more  sub- 
stantial, and  while  there  was  some  doctrinal  defection 
even  among  pastors,  others,  full  of  zeal,  were  the  more 
determined  to  maintain  the  faith  of  the  gospel.  The 
leaven  still  worked,  and  in  many  ways  the  power  of 
Christian  truth  in  the  minds  of  the  people  was  cropping 
out.  Deep  down  in  the  heart  of  the  Japanese  nation, 
which  is  really  inclined  to  religion,  there  was  a con- 
science that  could  not  deny  the  superior  light  that  was 
shining  among  them,  the  Light  of  Christ.  Even  the 
movements  of  the  Buddhists  and  the  latest  Shinto 
movement  only  too  clearly  prove  that  the  pressure  of 
Christianity  upon  public  thought  was  being  felt  by  its 
enemies.  . 

The  JVew  Treaties , 17th  of  July , 1899. — That  day 
marks  a new  and  glorious  era  in  the  political  history  of 
the  nation.  The  old  treaties  of  Perry  and  of  Harris  be- 
came on  that  day  null  and  void — that  is,  foreigners  re- 
siding or  visiting  upon  Japanese  soil  passed  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  their  consuls  under  the  laws  and  juris- 
diction of  the  Japanese.  Thenceforth,  for  any  crime 
committed,  or  dispute  at  law  by  foreigners,  the  arrest, 
summons,  trial,  and  judgment  of  the  case  are  to  be 
made  by  Japanese  officers  or  before  Japanese  judges. 
In  other  words,  Japan  entered  on  that  day  into  the  fam- 
ily of  Western  nations  upon  terms  of  international 
equality.  And  it  was  a day  longed  for  by  every  Japa- 
nese. For  forty  years  they  have  keenly  felt  that  their 
national  autonomy  and  the  sovereign  authority  of  their 
Emperor  in  his  own  country  were  being  set  at  naught 
by  the  existing  treaties  with  foreign  nations.  They 
were  embittered  over  this,  as  the  foregoing  pages 
plainly  show.  But  when  these. old  treaties  were  made, 


NEW  TREATIES  TAKE  EFFECT. 


399 


it  was  clearly  out  of  the  question  for  foreign  govern- 
ments to  place  their  nationals  under  the  barbarous  and 
cruel  procedures  of  judges  and  magistrates  such  as  ob- 
tained in  Japan  at  that  time.  And  as  often  as  Ja- 
pan’s leaders  approached  foreign  powers  upon  the  ques- 
tion of  changing  the  treaties  and  abolishing  foreign 
jurisdiction  upon  their  soil,  their  invariable  answer 
was:  “Go  and  qualify;  and  when  you  have  qualified, 
we  shall  be  willing.”  And  at  last  England,  then  the 
United  States,  followed  by  other  powers;  wrere  con- 
vinced that  the  rulers  had  made  sufficient  progress  in 
law,  order,  and  enlightenment  to  entitle  them  to  more 
liberal  treaties;  and  accordingly  new  treaties  were  en- 
tered into,  to  become  operative  on  the  17th  day  of  July. 
Nevertheless,  many  foreigners  living  there,  both  among 
the  missionaries  and  the  commercial  communities  in 
treaty  ports,  are  quite  skeptical  in  regard  to  Japan’s 
being  ready  to  take  charge  of  foreigners.  As  the  day 
approached  many  were  the  fears  expressed  as  to  the  ca- 
pacity of  Japanese  officials  to  administer  law  impar- 
tially and  justly  where  the  interests  or  rights  of  for- 
eigners are  involved  as  against  a Japanese  subject. 
And  indeed,  this  is  the  first  time  in  all  history  that  an 
Asiatic  nation  has  been  recognized  on  term  of  interna- 
tional equality  with  Christian  nations. 

But  the  distinguished  leaders  of  the  government, 
like  Counts  Ito,  Inouye,  and  Okuma,  are  confident  that 
Japan  will  be  equal  to  her  new  responsibility  and  prove 
herself  worthy  of  a place  in  the  great  sisterhood  of 
Western  nations.  And  even  the  doubters  must  confess 
that  the  leaders  and  counselors  of  the  Japanese  sover- 
eign have  long  foreseen  what  the  era  of  constitutional 
government  and  of  international  comity  signified,  and 
have  been  wisely  preparing  for  it.  The  old  system  of 


400 


JAPAN:  COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 


trials,  tortures,  and  judgments  was  abolished,  and  a 
system  of  laws,  the  fruit  of  the  most  patient  study  of 
all  the  codes  of  Western  nations,  was  framed,  and  a 
new  system  of  courts  organized,  with  a supreme  court 
of  justice  in  Tokyo.  That  system  of  laws  consists  of 
complete  civil,  criminal,  and  commercial  codes.  The 
judges  of  the  supreme  court  are  appointed  by  the  crown 
for  life,  or  good  behavior;  the  barristers  at  law,  as  well  as 
the  judges,  many  of  them  have  had  the  benefit  of  thor- 
ough training  in  the  best  law  schools  and  under  the  ablest 
jurists  in  Europe  or  America.  And  as  Japan’s  leaders 
have  hitherto  measured  up  to  new  responsibilities  and 
emergencies,  and  as  the  whole  nation  is  jealous  of  their 
standing  before  the  eyes  of  foreign  nations,  realizing 
that  they  are  now  being  watched  by  friends  and  foes 
alike,  the  writer  believes  the  forebodings  and  doubts  of 
those  who  have  opposed  a revision  of  the  treaties  will 
prove  groundless.* 

Turning  Again  to  the  Truth. — Within  the  past  three 
years  there  has  been  a decided  change  in  public  senti- 
ment. The  sudden  elation  of  mind  following  the 
great  victory  over  China  has  given  place  to  soberer 
views  of  national  glory.  That  exaggerated  confidence 
in  the  power  of  fleets,  armies,  and  commerce  to  heal 
the  hurt  of  a nation’s  sins  has  yielded  to  a more  ration- 
al view  of  what  the  real  needs  and  dangers  of  the  nation 
are,  and  what  the  remedy  is.  There  has  been  a healthy 
seeing  of  the  evils  in  the  land,  the  corruption  and  fond- 
ness for  luxury  in  higher  social  circles,  and  the  lack  of 
commercial  honesty  in  commercial  transactions.  One 
of  the  healthiest  symptoms  of  the  nation  is  that  many  of- 

* The  writer  of  these  pages  favored  treaty  revision  several 
years  ago,  for  which  he  was  treated  to  sarcastic  review  by 
one  of  the  English  papers  in  Yokohama. 


HIGHER  STANDARDS. 


401 


the  enlightened  leaders,  and  particularly  the  Christian 
pastors  and  teachers,  are  boldly  speaking  out  concern- 
ing the  national  sins,  the  moral  evils  that  threaten  so- 
ciety in  modern  Japan.  There  is  a call  to  repentance 
not  by  the  missionaries  only,  but  by  the  Japanese 
preachers  as  well.  Higher  standards  of  life  and  morals 
are  now  demanded  of  public  leaders.  Criticism  of 
public  affairs  and  of  social  questions  or  reforms  is  freer 
and  bolder  on  the  part  of  Christian  leaders.  The  ne- 
cessity of  religion  as  a basis  of  national  morality — the 
doctrine  insisted  upon  by  George  Washington  after 
the  American  Revolution — is  being  recognized  by  many 
open-eyed  teachers  and  leaders  of  the  present  day. 
The  consequence  is,  the  turning  again  of  many  to  the 
messengers  of  Christ.  All  the  reports  of  Christian 
workers  tell  of  meetings  more  largely  attended,  and  of 
renewed  interest  on  the  part  of  the  people.  All  the 
tokens  are  encouraging.  And  now  that  the  long- 
standing restrictions  respecting  the  residence  and  travel 
of  missionaries  have  been  removed,  their  work  in  the 
future  and  their  more  direct  presence  and  participation 
in  the  administration  of  Church  affairs,  made  legal  by 
the  new  treaties,  will  be  more  effective  than  ever. 

26 


CHAPTER  IV. 


INTERCOURSE  AND  FRIENDSHIP  BETWEEN  THE 
UNITED  STATES  AND  JAPAN  IN  THE  PAST. 

Ix  his  interesting  book  entitled  “ Intercourse  between 
the  United  States  and  Japan,”  by  my  whilom  fellow- 
student,  Dr.  Inazo  Nitobe,  a Japanese  gentleman  and 
Doctor  of  Philosophy,  of  Johns  Hopkins  University,  he 
sets  forth  very  fully,  first,  the  relations  between  Japan 
and  Europe,  and  then  America. 

Diplomatic  Relations.  — Should  some  one  wish  to 
write  for  one  of  our  American  reviews  a chapter  on 
the  early  intercourse  between  the  United  States  and 
Japan,  let  him  entitle  it  “An  Honorable  Chapter  in 
American  Diplomacy.”  Perry,  Harris,  Bryan,  De  Long, 
Bingham,  and  Hubbard,  our  representatives  from  1854 
to  1888,  stand  out,  all  of  them,  as  conspicuous  examples 
of  honorable  dealings  on  the  part  of  a strong  with  a 
weak  nation.  Judge  Bingham,  who  was  the  American 
Minister  to  Japan  for  thirteen  years,  by  his  unsullied 
Christian  character  and  his  willing  helpfulness,  became 
preeminently  the  trusted  counselor  and  confidential 
friend  of  the  leaders  of  the  New  Japan  in  these  critical 
times.  His  ability  and  experience  as  a lawyer,  bis  gen- 
uine sympathy  for  them  in  their  untried  measures  for 
reform  and  progress,  were  highly  serviceable  to  Japan. 

More  than  once  he  stood  forth  the  champion  of  their 
national  rights  against  the  unreasonable  demands  of 
other  great  powers  made  upon  a weaker  nation.  As  in- 
stances of  America’s  friendly  diplomacy,  as  represented 
by  Judge  Bingham,  is  the  fact  that  he  was  the  first  to 
(402) 


japan’s  only  FlilEND. 


m 


break  loose  from  the  diplomatic  cooperation  which, 
though  at  first  probably  a necessity,  was  extremely  lia- 
ble to  become  a sort  of  machinery  by  which  the  great 
powers  could  make  blustering  and  unjust  demands  upon 
Japan  in  the  hour  of  her  weakness.  When  in  1874  the 
Japanese  government  issued  customs  regulations  with- 
out consulting  the  foreign  consuls,  Judge  Bingham 
alone  defended  Japan’s  right  to  do  so;  and  when  in 
1878  the  cholera  was  raging,  and  the  government  at- 
tempted the  very  reasonable  measure  of  medical  inspec- 
tion, and,  if  need  be,  quarantining  merchant  ships,  and 
the  foreign  consuls  objected,  it  was  lie  who  declared: 
“ The  action  of  the  consuls  is  a substantial  denial  of  the 
right  of  the  Japanese  government  to  prevent  the  im- 
portation of  pestilence  by  foreign  vessels.”  The  next 
summer,  when  the  German  consul,  by  means  of  a war 
ship,  took  a vessel  out  of  quarantine  in  defiance  of  the 
regulations,  Gen.  Grant,  who  was  there,  remarked  on 
the  occasion  that  “the  vessel  ought  to  have  been  sunk;” 
and  Mr.  Bingham  resented  the  German  consul’s  audacity 
both  upon  the  ground  that  Japan,  a weak  nation,  still 
had  the  right  to  do  right , and  because  the  unreasonable  de- 
fiance of  wholesome  regulations  in  time  of  epidemic  im- 
periled alike  American  residents  and  Japanese  subjects 
in  the  treaty  ports.  And  again,  when  Japan’s  regula- 
tions for  the  sale  of  opium  were  objected  to  by  the 
British  and  French  Ministers  as  derogatory  to  extrater- 
ritorial rights,  he  took  a different  view,  recognizing  the 
right  of  a weak  as  well  as  a strong  nation  to  protect 
itself  against  such  a curse  as  the  opium  traffic  is.  In 
the  words  of  Mr.  Nitobe,  “All  honor  to  the  veteran 
judge  from  Ohio!” 

For  further  examples  of  a friendly  attitude  toward 
Japan  in  her  struggles,  we  mention  the  fact  that  when 


404 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


she  proposed  to  enter  the  postal  and  telegraphic  con- 
ventions with  foreign  nations,  the  United  States  was  the 
only  treaty  power  that  did  not  hesitate.  And  the  return 
of  the  Shimonoseki  indemnity  is  another  example  of  fair 
and  honorable  dealings  on  the  part  of  a strong  power 
with  a weak  one,  and  had  the  effect  of  cementing  the 
friendship  between  the  two  countries.  Gen.  Grant, 
speaking  of  American  policy  in  Japan,  once  said: 
“Whatever  may  be  her  influence,  I am  proud  to  think 
it  has  always  been  exerted  in  behalf  of  j ustice  and  kind- 
ness.” As  early  as  1878  did  the  United  States  take 
steps  toward  the  revision  of  certain  portions  of  the 
commercial  treaties. 

Respecting  the  revision  of  the  old  treaties,  with  their 
restrictions  upon  Japan’s  right  to  regulate  her  own  tar- 
ifs  on  imports,  and  the  extraterritorial  jurisdiction  of 
foreign  consuls  upon  Japanese  soil,  so  odious  to  every 
Japanese,  the  United  States  and  her  worthy  representa- 
tives, when  they  saw  that  Japan  had  qualified  for  better 
government,  were  foremost  to  agree  to  consider  new  and 
juster  treaties.  This  was  proved  when  (1888)  the  pro- 
posals for  treaty  revision  were  communicated  to  the 
Ministers  of  the  great  powers  in  Tokyo,  and  the  Amer- 
ican Minister,  lion.  ex-Gov.  Hubbard,  obtained  by  ca- 
blegram, within  twenty-four  hours,  permission  from  his 
government  at  Washington  to  accept  them.  Well  does 
the  writer  remember  how  sanguine  Mr.  Hubbard  was 
over  the  prospect  of  the  speedy  conclusion  of  the  new 
treaties,  feeling,  as  he  did,  that  it  was  just  and  right. 
And  the  reason  why  they  were  not  ratified  was  not  the 
fault  of  President  Cleveland,  President  Harrison,  or  of 
the  United  States  Senate;  but  it  was  due  to  opposition 
among  the  Japanese  themselves,  on  account  of  the  pro- 
vision for  mixed  judges  in  Japanese  courts.  The  proud 


EARLY  EDUCATIONAL  INFLUENCES. 


405 


Japanese  were  not  willing  to  see  foreign  judges  sitting 
on  the  bench;  and  if  Count  Okuma  had  gone  on  with 
such  a treaty,  there  would  probably  have  been  a revo- 
lution. 

While  in  his  carriage  on  the  streets  of  Tokyo  he  re- 
ceived a wound  from  a dynamite  bomb  thrown  by  a fa- 
natical youth.  The  wound  came  nigh  being  mortal,  and 
he  was  forced  to  resign  the  office  of  Foreign  Minister, 
whereupon  soon  afterwards  the  question  of  treaty  revi- 
sion was  for  a while  dropped. 

It  is  just  to  say  that  when  the  new  treaties  were  con- 
cluded it  was  Great  Britain  that  wras  the  first  to  sign 
them,  followed  quickly,  however,  by  the  United  States. 

Nor  has  Japan  been  slow  to  appreciate  the  friendly 
and  helpful  policy  of  the  United  States.  When  Gen. 
Grant  made  his  tour  around  the  world,  nowhere  was  he 
more  enthusiastically  received  than  in  Japan.  As  the 
distinguished  representative  of  the  great  American 
Union  again  restored,  he  was  made  the  guest  of  the  na- 
tion, and  had  repeated  and  confidential  interviews  with 
the  Emperor,  in  which  the  future  relations  of  the  two 
countries  were  discussed;  and  in  one  of  them  the  Em- 
peror is  reported  to  have  said:  “America  and  Japan, 
being  near  neighbors  separated  by  ocean  only,  will  be- 
come more  and  more  closely  connected  with  each  other 
as  time  goes  on.” 

The  Early  Educational  Influences  of  New  Japan 
Mere  Almost  Exclusively  American. — Rev.  Guido  F. 
Verbeck,  the  honored  and  now  lamented  missionary, 
was  the  first  President  of  the  Kai  Sei  Gakko  (1869- 
74),  which  is  now  the  Imperial  University,  and  this 
notwithstanding  the  government’s  dislike  of  Christian- 
ity. One  of  the  earliest  professors  was  another  mis- 
sionary, the  venerable  Dr.  McOartee.  Besides  these, 


406 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 

Profs.  Morse,  Whitman,  Paul,  Mendenhall,  Chaplin, 
Waddell,  Veeder,  Terry,  Jewett,  Fenollosa,  and  others 
— all  Americans — were  at  one  time  or  another  connect- 
ed with  some  department  of  the  university  in  Tokyo,  in 
its  earlier  years. 

Daniel  Murray,  LL.D.,  prominent  in  educational  cir- 
cles in  New  York,  became  adviser  (1873)  to  the  Depart- 
ment of  Education,  and  rendered  valuable  service  in 
the  organization  of  the  public  school  system,  and  in 
completing  the  fine  educational  museum  in  Tokyo. 
He  was  decorated  by  the  Emperor  with  the.  Order  of 
the  Rising  Sun.  Reference  has  been  made  in  a pre- 
vious page  to  the  early  school  books,  that  were  almost 
exclusively  American. 

Prof.  M.  M.  Scott,  of  Kentucky,  organized  and 
opened  the  first  normal  college  in  Japan  (1872),  and 
this  became  the  basis  of  the  normal  school  system. 

The  Japanese  had  in  their  schools  no  knowledge  of 
modern  music  until  an  American — Mr.  Luther  Mason, 
of  Boston  — went  to  Japan  (1879),  and  spent  three 
years  in  the  service  of  the  government,  introducing 
musical  instruction  into  the  schools. 

The  training  of  nurses  was  introduced  by  an  Ameri- 
can lady,  Miss  Richards,  and  this  suggests  the  remark 
that  the  foundation  laying  of  modern  female  education 
in  that  country  is  chiefly  the  work  of  American  mis- 
sionary women.  Beginning  with  Mrs.  Hepburn  and 
Miss  Kidder,  the  American  ladies  have  done  a work 
for  which  Japanese  women  will  ever  be  grateful.  In 
1887,  out’  of  a total  number  of  seventy-four  missionary 
women  in  Japan,  sixty-nine  were  Americans.  Nor  was 
their  work  confined  to  the  mission  schools  for  girls,  for 
Mrs.  Chappel  was  for  a number  of  years  before  her 
marriage  one  of  the  foreign  lady  teachers  in  the  school 


ADVANCE  IN  SCIENCE  AND  IN  BUSINESS. 


407 


for  the  daughters  of  the  nobles  in  Tokyo,  an  institu- 
tion under  the  patronage  of  the  Empress. 

In  scientific  services,  Gen.  Capron,  with  his  staff 
of  American  assistants,  stands  preeminent  for  what  he 
did  in  introducing  scientific  agriculture.  His  staff  of 
specialists  did  important  work  besides,  in  geological, 
mining,  hydrographic,  and  trigonometrical  surveys. 
New  industries  and  crops  were  introduced,  including 
American  breeds  of  horses  and  of  sheep;  fruits,  as  ap- 
ples, plums,  berries,  and  grasses.  In  Hokkaido,  Profs. 
Pumpelly  and  Lyman  (the  former  in  mining,  the  latter 
in  geological  work)  rendered  most  important  service. 

The  agricultural  college  at  Sapporo,  in  the  North, 
begun  by  Gen.  Capron,  was  developed  into  a splendid 
institution  by  Col.  William  S.  Clark,  Ph.D.,  LL.D., 
President  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College, 
assisted  by  several  Americans. 

Americans  introduced  likewise  the  art  of  fish  can- 
ning, destined  to  become  so  important  an  industry  in 
the  Northern  waters;  dairying  also,  so  much  needed  in 
Japanese  living;  and  gymnastics  in  their  schools.  And 
it  was  an  American,  Mr.  Goble,  who  invented  the  ve- 
hicle named  “ jinrikusha,”  now  so  indispensable  as  a 
means  of  travel. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  first  medical 
classes,  organized  and  instructed  by  Drs.  Berry  and 
Faiilds,  both  Americans. 

Their  postal  system  was  modeled  after  ours  in  Amer- 
ica, and  Mr.  Paul  Bryan,  of  Washington,  D.  C.,  went  out 
to  assist  the  government  in  improving  and  expanding  it. 
He  was  sent  abroad  as  commissioner  for  Japan  to  per- 
suade the  treaty  powers  to  admit  that  country  into  the 
International  Postal  Union,  the  United  States,  as 
usual,  setting  the  example  to  the  others. 


408 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


Likewise  the  coinage  and  hanking  system , as  well  as 
the  patent  regulations,  were  all  modeled  after  those  of 
America.  Messrs.  George  W.  Williams  and  Matthew 
Scott  were  engaged  for  a number  of  years  in  the  finance 
department,  and  rendered  valuable  service.  The  mint 
at  Osaka  was,  however,  set  up  by  an  Englishman. 

In  naval  affairs,  we  mention  the  name  of  Gen. 
Legendre,  Lieuts.  Cassell  and  Wasson,  to  whom 
were  tendered  the  appointment  and  rank  of  Commo- 
dore in  the  Japanese  navy.  Gen.  Legendre  was  ex- 
pected to  proceed  with  the  expedition  against  Formosa, 
but  was  prevented  by  the  American  Minister;  neverthe- 
less they  all  rendered  good  service  to  the  navy.  In 
this  connection  a number  of  young  men  were  sent  by 
the  government  at  Tokyo  to  our  naval  school  at  Annap- 
olis for  training,  and  they  now  occupy  important  posts 
in  Japan’s  navy.  The  names  of  Drs.  Griffis,  Cutter, 
and  Murray,  Profs.  Eastlake  and  Antisell,  Drs.  Simons 
and  Whitney,  Capt.  James,  Mr.  A.  Jones,  Mr.  E. 
Peshine  Smith  (adviser  to  the  government  in  interna- 
tional law),  Col.  Joseph  W.  Crawford,  Prof.  Frank 
Ilullot,  and  others  whose  names  are  not  accessible  de- 
serve honorable  mention  for  work  in  developing  some 
line  of  modern  civilization  in  Japan. 

Dr.  Fenollosa,  professor  in  the  university,  ‘ saw  the 
radical  mistake  the  young  artists  of  New  Japan  were 
making  in  discarding  their  ancient  pictorial  art  styles 
and  too  eagerly  imitating  everything  Western.  The 
government  appreciated  his  warning,  and  appointed 
him  Commissioner  of  Arts,  to  visit  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica to  inspect  and  report  upon  the  management  of  art 
schools  and  museums,  and  to  purchase  books  and  art 
productions  for  the  imperial  government. 

In  works  upon  the  Japanese  language  the  Americans 


WRITERS  AND  STUDENTS. 


409 


liave  made  no  mean  contribution.  Dr.  J.  C.  Hepburn’s 
English- Japanese  Dictionary  stands  preeminent,  being 
the  first  of  the  kind  ever  published.  Then  Drs.  Brown, 
Griffis,  Eastlake,  Imbrie,  White,  Lloyd,  Muller,  Brad- 
bury, and  others  have  issued  language  text-books  upon 
Japanese,  or  Japanese  and  English.  The  manuals  for 
Japanese  students  studying  English,  issued  by  the 
Americans,  have  been  valuable. 

As  for  American  writers  on  Japan,  they  are  num- 
bered by  the  score.  Since  Mr.  King,  a merchant  of 
Macao,  who  went  in  the  ship  Morrison  in  1837  on  a 
mission  of  mercy,  published  in  the  next  year  the  narra- 
tive of  his  voyage;  and  since  the  monumental  works 
published  by  our  government,  giving  the  narrative  of 
Commodore  Perry’s  expedition  to  Japan  in  1854,  mis- 
sionaries, tourists,  scientists,  and  artists  have  been  mak- 
ing their  various  contributions  upon  that  picturesque 
country  and  interesting  people. 

Japanese  Students  in  America. — America  has  indeed 
been  an  El  Dorado  to  Japanese  young  men  bright  and 
eager,  some  of  whom  have  been  chosen  by  the  govern- 
ment and  expenses  provided  for,  while  others,  sons  of 
wealth  or  rank,  came  at  their  own  charges;  but  most 
of  them  were  indigent  and  ambitious,  having  spent  all 
they  could  scrape  and  rake  together  in  paying  their  fare 
from  Japan  to  this  country.  These  last,  ofttimes  intel- 
lectual and  studious,  were  dependent  partly  upon  their 
own  toil — all  manner  of  work  which  their  hands  could 
find — partly  upon  the  kindly  aid  of  sympathizing  Chris- 
tians, and  upon  special  consideration  and  reduction  of 
fees  granted  by  the  school  that  received  them.  It  would 
he  hard  to  estimate  the  amount  in  clean  cash  freely  con- 
tributed by  the  American  Christians  to  Japanese  students 
direct,  or  by  the  institutions  receiving  them  by  granting 


410 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


special  favors,  assistance  being  given  in  either  case  al- 
most invariably  because  they  were  Japanese  young  men 
and  professing  Christians. 

Two  pioneer  students  came  to  New  York  in  1866, 
having  a letter  from  one  of  the  missionaries  in  Japan. 
Their  expressed  intention  in  coming  to  America  was  ‘‘to 
learn  how  to  build  ‘big  ships,’  and  to  make  ‘big  guns,’ 
to  prevent  the  European  powers  from  taking  possession 
of  their  country.”  And  this  ambitious  scheme,  worthy 
of  a Peter  the  Great,  they  proposed  to  accomplish  with- 
out knowing  the  language  of  the  Americans,  and,  what 
ay  as  Avorse,  with  only  about  one  hundred  dollars  in  their 
pockets. 

The  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  Reformed 
Church,  in  New  York,  kindly  came  to  their  relief,  and 
later  the  money  was  refunded  by  the  Japanese  govern- 
ment. In  illustration  of  the  statement  made  above, 
from  the  year  1866  to  1896  about  five  thousand  Japanese 
students  sought  advice  or  some  kind  of  assistance  at  the 
office  of  this  Board  of  Missions,  in  New  York  City;  and 
Rutgers  College  alone  has  received  more  than,  three 
hundred  of  them,  first  and  last.  In  every  prominent 
Church  institution  in  the  Union,  North  and  South,  Jap- 
anese students  have  studied,  and  almost  invariably  been 
beneficiaries  to  a greater  or  less  extent. 

In  the  several  State  universities  likewise,  Japanese 
young  men  have  studied.  The  agricultural,  technolog- 
ical, and  professional  schools  scattered  throughout  the 
country  have  also  had  Japanese  students  among  their 
matriculates  and  graduates. 

Be  it  said  to  their  credit,  the  majority  of  them  have 
been  diligent  in  study,  have  taken  high  rank  in  their 
classes,  and  been  exemplary  in  their  conduct.  It  was 
to  be  expected  that  out  of  so  many  a few  Avould  prove 


IMBIBING  AGNOSTICISM. 


411 


to  be  religious  impostors,  pretending  to  be  earnest  Chris- 
tians simply  as  a cloak  to  gain  favor  and  assistance 
while  in  this  country,  the  cloak  being  promptly  thrown 
off  upon  their  return  to  their  own  country. 

Dr.  Nitobe,  who  has  studied  both  in  the  American 
and  German  universities,  draws  a contrast  between  the 
higher  education  of  the  two  countries,  and  while  he 
thinks  the  Germans  are  rather  more  thorough  than  the 
Americans,  “at  the  same  time  the  moral  influences,  and 
much  more  the  religious,  of  German  academic  life  are 
wanting  when  weighed  in  the  balance,”  etc.  He  there- 
fore would  recommend  young  men  not  matured,  or  pre- 
pared to  take  a special  course  in  Germany,  to  come  to 
America.  But,  after  all,  he  doubts  whether  it  be  ad- 
visable for  so  many  young  men  to  go  abroad  to  study, 
even  to  America.  Many  of  those  who  have  graduated 
from  American  colleges  and  universities  now  occupy 
high  positions  not  only  in  the  Imperial  University  and 
various  technical  institutions  of  the  government,  but 
also  in  the  several  mission  schools,  as  editors  of  news- 
papers and  magazines;  and  many  hold  lucrative  posi- 
tions in  the  departments  of  the  government,  at  the  bar, 
in  engineering,  and  as  bank  officials;  many,  too,  are  en- 
gaged in  -religious  work  as  preachers.  And  it  must  be 
that  these  men,  who  have  been  so  kindly  treated  by  the 
American  people,  and  have  received  the  best  training  in 
American  institutions,  will  be  a powerful  bond  of  good 
will  between  the  two  countries  in  the  future.  Alas! 
some  of  them  have  carried,  back  to  their  native  country- 
men a broken  faith  and  the  spirit  of  materialistic  ag- 
nosticism, the  result  of  teachings  imbibed,  or  perchance 
of  the  inconsistent  lives  of  professing  Christians  with 
whom  they  have  come  in  contact.  A few  female  stu- 
dents were  likewise  sent  over,  by  the  government’s  ap- 


412 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


proval,  at  an  early  day — daughters  of  high  rank  and  so- 
cial position.  Some  of  them  are  now  enthusiastically 
devoted  to  the  larger  culture  and  sphere  of  woman  in 
Japan.  The  foregoing  facts,  touching  the  large  meas- 
ure of  kindness  and  substantial  aid  bestowed  upon  hun- 
dreds and  even  thousands  of  Japanese  young  men,  have 
not  been  set  out  merely  for  the  purpose  of  eulogizing 
the  American  people.  Heaven  knows,  we  Americans 
have  our  faults  and  national  sins,  but  it  is  meet  and 
right  that  the  facts  be  recognized  as  illustrating  the  his- 
tory of  the  intercourse  between  the  United  States  and 
Japan,  all  so  clearly  set  forth  by  Hr.  Nitobe,  himself 
once  a university  student  in  our  country.  We  only  add 
here  that  such  substantial  aid  bestowed  upon  so  many 
students  from  a foreign  land  is  not  surpassed  elsewhere 
outside  of  America.  These  men,  educated  in  the  United 
States  and  now  in  places  of  leadership,  and  intrusted 
with  the  molding  of  the  thought  and  sentiment  of  the 
future  of  their  nation  in  future,  cannot  but  be  a bond  of 
friendship  and  of  commerce  between  the  two  lands. 

Another  powerful  bond  between  the  two  countries  has 
been  formed  by  the  large  number  of  missionaries  from 
our  shores  that  labor  and  live  in  Japan.  The  number 
of  American  missionaries  exceeds  by  far  that  from  any 
other  country.  They  have  been  severely  criticised  from 
time  to  time;  but,  after  all,  it  is  likely  that  their  influ- 
ence in  promoting  good  will  toward  Japan  is  not  suffi- 
ciently recognized  either  here  or  there.  The  Japanese 
themselves  are  probably  not  aware  to  what  extent  the 
religious  motive  and  the  Christian  principles  of  foreign 
missions  have  awakened  and  still  keep  alive  the  strong, 
interest  of  the  American  people  in  their  welfare  and 
progress.  Commercial  interests  are  strong,  literary  and 
artistic  motives  may  lead  a few  to  think  and  care  for 


NATIONAL  RIGHTS  DEFENDED.  413 

the  Japanese  people,  but  by  far  the  strongest  and  widest 
interest  in  those  people  has  its  springs  in  Christian  mo- 
tives and  feelings;  nor  is  it  the  less  intelligent,  for,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  best- read  students  of  Japanese  civili- 
zation, history,  and  religion,  as  well  as  modern  progress, 
are  to  be  found  among  the  cultured  Christian  gentlemen 
and  ladies  connected  with  the  several  missionary  socie- 
ties. Suppose  we  cut  out  and  cast  into  the  sea  of  ob- 
livion all  the  missionary  work  done  in  Japan  by  preach- 
ers, teachers,  writers;  destroy  all  the  friendship  and  as- 
sociations which  they  and  their  wives  have  cultivated 
there,  and  all  that  they  have  written  in  private  letters, 
periodicals,  and  books  in  behalf  of  the  Japanese  nation, 
and  where  would  Japan  stand  to-day?  Every  mission- 
ary is  a strong  cable  binding  the  hearts  of  the  two  na- 
tions together.  One  thing  frequently  occurring,  but 
which  is  strangely  overlooked , is  that  the  missionaries 
in  China,  Japan,  and  other  countries  have  been  the 
stanchest  champions  of  their  national  rights.  They  are 
not  slow  to  speak  in  behalf  of  the  countries  where  they 
live  and  work.  A notable  example  of  this  was  the  al- 
most unanimous  sentiment  of  the  American  missionaries 
working  in  China  against  the  Chinese  Exclusion  bill 
passed  by  Congress.  Nor  has  Japan  lacked  for  cham- 
pions among  the  missionaries  respecting  the  justice  of 
her  demand  for  a revision  of  the  old  treaties.  They  are 
about  the  first  of  all  the  foreign  residents  to  frankly 
recognize  the  political  advancement  and  general  prog- 
ress of  the  nation  among  whom  they  dwell  and  for  whom 
they  work. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  FUTURE. 

Japan  has  done  what  no  other  Asiatic  nation  has  ever 
done:  adopted  a constitutional  form  of  government  and 
secured  entrance  into  the  family  of  Western  nations 
upon  terms  of  equality.  This  much  is  history,  and  with 
this  much  gained  she  launches  upon  the  twentieth  cen- 
tury. 

Her  future  peace,  progress,  and  power  can,  however, 
be  secured  permanently  only  upon  the  acceptance  of 
Christianity  as  the  religion  of  her  people.  It  cannot 
yet  be  said  either  of  the  rulers  or  of  the  people  that  they 
are  Christian.  It  cannot  be  a Christian  empire  when 
the  Emperor  still  has  eleven  or  twelve  concubines  in 
the  palace;  it  cannot  be  a Christian  nation  when  so 
many  of  the  people  are  still  idolaters,  worshiping  gods 
and  goddesses,  and  even  the  sun  and  moon,  or  the  fox. 
Xor  is  it  just,  on  the  other  hand,  to  call  them  indiscrim- 
inately pagans  and  uncivilized.  The  truth  is  that  Ja- 
pan  is  now  neither  Christian  nor  pagan,  neither  Orien- 
tal nor  Occidental,  but  is  in  a state  of  mixture  and  tran- 
sition. The  whole  question  of  Japan’s  future  depends 
upon  her  acceptance  or  rejection  of  the  Christian  reli- 
gion. There  are  many  conflicting  forces  all  fighting  for 
supremacy  over  the  Japanese  mind. 

Buddhism  is  still  struggling  for  its  ancient  footing; 
Shintoism  has  made  a new  rally,  attempting  to  enforce 
itself  upon  the  Japanese  heart  by  setting  up  the  Em- 
peror and  loyalty  to  him  as  against  the  allegiance  and 
worship  of  Jesus  Christ.  But  both  of  these  are  doomed 
(414) 


CONFLICTING  RELIGIONS. 


415 


religions  in  Japan.  A religion  that  lias  to  compromise 
itself  and  perpetuate  itself  by  borrowing  and  imita- 
ting Christianity  can  never  stand  in  competition  with 
it;  and  as  for  the  vain  and  bombastic  talk  about  the 
worship  of  “his  sacred  majesty,  the  Emperor,  which 
every  faithful  Japanese  performs,”  it  will  not  save 
Shintoism. 

But  there  is  modern  infidelity,  imported  from  Eu- 
rope and  America,  a rationalistic  and  scientific  agnos- 
ticism, that  bids  for  the  educated  classes.  Much  has 
been  done  to  make  the  youth  believe  that  Christianity 
is  a worn-out  system,  to  be  ever  hereafter  discredited  in 
the  name  of  modern  science.  New  Japan  affects  to  be 
strictly  scientific — scientific  or  nothing.  Again,  there 
is  a class  of  practical  secularists  who  believe  that  Ja- 
pan can  get  all  the  benefits  of  Christian  civilization 
without  Christianity  itself;  or,  another  school  says, 
accept  a quasi  Christianity  without  a personal  Christ, 
or  even  the  historical  Christ  without  believing  in  his 
uniquely  divine  nature  and  claims. 

A kind  of  rationalistic  eclectic  system  dubbed  Chris- 
tianity (partly  Japanese,  partly  paganism,  and  partly 
European)  will  probably  be  attempted  by  a few  rare 
souls  who  imagine  they  could  devise  a religion  up  to 
date,  by  convention  and  resolution  (on  paper) — a reli- 
gion vastly  superior  to  anything  yet  heard  of  either  in 
the  West  or  the  East. 

Of  course,  while  all  these  movements  make  common 
cause  against  evangelical  Christianity,  like  the  Phari- 
sees and  Sadducees  in  the  days  of  our  Lord,  they  are 
naturally  against  one  another.  Out  of  this  many-sided 
and  intensely  intellectual  conflict  the  gospel  of  Christ 
will  finally  come  forth  victorious.  Apostolic,  historical 
Christianity  will  be  the  accepted  religion  of  the  Japa- 


4:10 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


nese  nation.  It  will  not  be  the  Christian  faith  bur- 
dened and  weakened  by  all  the  discordant  tenets  of  the 
many  sectarian  creeds  of  the  Western  hemisphere,  but 
will  represent  the  essentials  common  to  the  several 
branches  of  Protestant  Christianity.  To  Calvinists, 
Lutherans,  and  High- Church  Ritualists  this  may  come 
as  a disappointment,  but  the  reader  may  depend  upon 
it,  the  Japanese  are  not  going  back  just  far  enough  in 
Church  history  to  begin  with  all  the  controversies  that 
have  raged,  and,  trying  to  bear  them  upon  their  shoul- 
ders, wade  through  the  fight  up  to  the  twentieth  cen- 
tury, but  will  take  apostolic  and  historic  Christianity, 
in  its  common  essentials,  as  their  creed.  And  Japan 
will  be  the  first  great  Or  iental  nation  of  modern  times  to 
embrace  the  religion  of  Jesus.  This  we  take  to  be  a fore- 
gone conclusion,  notwithstanding  there  may  be  tempo- 
rary reactions.  There  may  indeed  be  many  unfriendly 
isms  and  movements  to  contend  with,  and  yet  Christ’s 
Name  and  Gospel  will  move  steadily  on  and  finally  win 
a great  victory,  and  secure  to  this  wide-awake,  pro- 
gressive country  an  honorable  career  among  the  Chris- 
tian nations  of  the  earth.  Already  Christianity  has 
struck  its  roots  deep  into  the  heart  and  respect  of  the 
nation,  and  exerts  its  influence  far  beyond  what  its 
numerical  strength  would  indicate.  For  example,  the 
first  President  of  the  Lower  House  of  the  new  Parlia- 
ment, as  well  as  the  President  of  the  last  one,  were 
professing  Christians,  and  one  of  the  judges  of  the 
Supreme  Court  in  Tokyo  is  to-day  a Christian  known 
and  recognized  as  such,  and  there  are  others  in  high 
position  appointed  by  imperial  authority.  As  the 
years  go  on,  the  Christians  will  make  themselves  felt 
more  and  more  in  questions  of  public  morality  and  re- 
form. The  next  Emperor  (now  heir  apparent,  and  about 


CHRISTIANITY  WILL  WIN. 


417 


twenty  years  old)  will  never  ascend  the  throne  a po- 
lygamist, but  as  the  husband  of  one  wife. 

That  the  Japanese  will  accept  Christianity  as  the  re- 
ligion of  their  country  and  of  their  homes  needs  hardly 
to  be  argued.  The  missionaries  will  continue  their 
work  of  preaching  and  teaching;  the  native  ministry, 
with  its  constituency  of  disciplined  and  gradually 
self-propagating  and  self-supporting  churches,  will  in- 
crease in  both  numbers  and  efficiency;  and  then  there 
is  that  indefinable  and  invisible  spread  of  Christian 
sentiment  under  the  Spirit  of  all  truth,  so  that  in  due 
time  a great  harvest  of  thousands  upon  thousands  will 
be  gathered  yearly  into  the  Christian  Church.  Al- 
ready there  is  an  increasing  number  of  educated  men  who 
now  recognize  that  modern  civilization  without  religion 
means  the  corruption  of  society,  the  unloosing  of  all 
the  bonds,  and  the  undermining  of  all  the  foundations 
upon  which  a nation’s  peace  and  safety  rest.  One 
thing  characteristic  of  the  leaders  of  the  New  Japan, 
in  spite  of  occasional  national  reactions  against  foreign 
ideas,  is  the  open  eye  that  marks  the  lessons  of  history, 
as  observed  in  the  nations  and  countries  beyond  them- 
selves, and  along  with  this  open  eye  is  the  determina- 
tion to  have  the  best.  Converted  to  Christ,  and  tak- 
ing its  place  among  the  sisterhood  of  enlightened  na- 
tions, Japan’s  future  career  needs  to  be  considered  from 
two  different  points  of  view. 

Reform  in  the  Orient. — Japan’s  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity will  in  many  ways  have  a tremendous  influence 
upon  China  and  Korea.  The  Japanese  are  a people  of 
action,  aggressive  in  temperament,  being  in  this  respect 
more  like  the  Teutonic  than  the  Oriental  races,  and  will, 
when  Christianized,  become  powerful  and  successful 
missionaries  of  the  Truth  among  other  Oriental  peoples. 


418 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


They  are  at  the  same  time  Oriental  enough  in  language, 
literature,  and  race,  and  their  ancient  political  in- 
stitutions were  so  closely  modeled  after  the  Chinese,  to 
give  them  an  easier  access  to  the  heart  of  that  vast  em- 
pire. They  themselves  will  he  the  living  proofs,  show- 
ing how  superior  the  Christian  religion  and  Christian 
civilization  are. 

Not  only  as  evangelizers,  but  also  as  political  reform- 
ers, the  Japanese  will  have  a powerful  influence  upon 
Korea  and  China.  Being  Orientals,  they  have  the  genius 
of  the  Oriental  mind,  and  can  understand  what  polit- 
ical institutions  and  forms  of  government  are  adapted 
to  the  Oriental  race  better  than  the  Europeans  can  pos- 
sibly do.  They  will  make  a more  powerful  appeal  to 
those  hitherto  absolute  despotisms  to  enter  the  path  of 
political  reform  and  liberty.  They  will  be  the  cham- 
pions of  constitutional  government,  and  will  play  a 
leading  part  in  alliances  to  maintain  the  independence 
of  the  far  East  against  the  scheming  aggressions  of  Eu- 
ropean jjowers.  At  this  writing  such  a journal  as  the 
London  Spectator  is  seriously  discussing  the  possibility 
of  Japan’s  entering  into  offensive  and  defensive  alliance 
with  China,  so  as  to  frustrate  what  are  supposed  to  be 
Russian  schemes,  which  alliance  would  put  Japan  in 
the  lead  of  China’s  political  reformation.  At  ail  events, 
Japan  has  secured  for  the  future  a recognized  position 
in  the  international  politics  of  the  far  East,  which  En- 
gland, Russia,  and  the  United  States  must  reckon  with. 

As  to  the  large  and  influential  place  the  Japanese 
have  woh  in  the  Orient,  there  can  be  no  question  what- 
ever. It  is  a fact  not  generally  known  among  Western 
writers  that  at  one  period  in  their  history  the  Japanese 
came  nigli  being  the  great  maritime  and  colonizing  power 
of  all  the  Orient.  They  still  have  the  same  bold, 


CHINA  SHOULD  REMAIN  INTACT. 


419 


seafaring  spirit  which  was  then  checked,  but  never  de- 
stroyed. And  now  that  they  are  becoming  a manufac- 
turing people,  they  will  export  in  their  own  ships  their 
fabrics  and  j)roducts.  The  markets  of  all  the  seaports, 
as  well  as  the  great  cities  of  the  inland  rivers,  will  be 
flush  with  goods  handled  by  their  own  merchants.  Their 
agents  will  penetrate  into  distant  regions,  introducing 
their  wares;  their  banks  of  exchange  and  consular  of- 
fices will  be  established  in  all  the  marts  of  trade  from 
Bombay  to  Pekin,  and  beyond  Bombay  in  Australia 
and  Polynesia;  and  their  merchant  ships,  flying  the  flag 
of  the  Rising  Sun,  will  be  sailing  the  seas  and  anchor- 
ing in  all  the  great  ports,  in  active  competition  with 
American  and  English  vessels.  Having  entered  the 
markets  of  the  East,  they  can  never  be  driven  out,  but 
must  be  treated  as  friendly  rivals. 

Japarts  Future  Intercourse  with  the  United  States. — 
“The  last  shall  be  first”  is  true  here  also;  for  though 
America  was  the  very  last  to  be  discovered  to  the  Jap- 
anese, she  will  be  the  most  powerful  in  her  influence 
upon  that  nation.  That  the  United  States  and  Japan 
will  be  drawn  close  together  in  international  policy  in 
the  far  East  may  be  illustrated  by  considering  their  re- 
spective attitudes  at  the  present  time  upon  the  question 
of  the  dismemberment  of  China.  As  a recent  writer  in 
the  North  American  Review  has  shown,  the  United  States 
should  continue  to  demand  the  “open  door”  in  China, 
and  do  all  in  her  power,  short  of  declaring  war,  in  order 
to  perpetuate  the  integrity  of  the  Chinese  Empire.  Our 
commercial  interests,  now  guaranteed  by  treaty  with 
China,  demand  our  support  in  maintaining  the  national 
independence  of  China.  Japan  strongly  feels  the  same 
way.  The  Japanese  are  bitterly  opposed  to  China’s  be- 
ing divided  out  among  the  European  powers,  and  will 


420 


JAPAN : COUNTRY,  COURT,  PEOPLE. 

welcome  any  understanding  with  the  United  States  to 
prevent  it. 

Again,  Japan  will  furnish  an  increasing  market  for 
our  products;  our  wheat  and  flour,  iron  and  steel,  ma- 
chinery of  all  kinds,  cotton,  wool,  hides,  and  coal  oil. 
Let  the  reader  pause  to  consider  that  last  year  the  for- 
eign trade  of  Japan  amounted  to  8444,000,000,  and  that 
America  already  buys  more  from  Japan  than  any  other 
foreign  nation,  and  he  will  see  how  easy  and  natural 
ought  to  be  the  increasing  exchange  of  our  wheat,  cot- 
ton, iron,  and  steel,  for  the  immense  quantities  of  Japa- 
nese products  which  we  buy.  We  shall  have  enormous 
quantities  of  raw  material,  which  the  Japanese  must  pur- 
chase to  supply  their  manufactories  and  mills.  Japan 
is  destined  to  be  a manufacturing  country  on  a large 
scale;  and  the  Pacific  Ocean,  which  was  once  a barrier 
and  separated  far  apart,  now  unites  and  makes  neigh- 
bors of  Japan  and  America.  Three  things  will  in  due 
time  be  done  to  still  further  promote  intercourse  of  trade 
and  travel: 

1.  The  Nicaraguan  canal  will  be  cut  through. 

2.  Ocean  cables  will  be  laid  from  the  Pacific  coast  to 
the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  thence  one  line  to  Japan  and 
another  to  Manila. 

3.  The  reduction  of  the  time  of  a ship’s  voyage  across 
the  Pacific  to  ten  or  twelve  days. 

Inasmuch  as  our  American  republic  opened  Japan  in 
1854,  and  has  since  that  day  pursued  uniformly  a friend- 
ly and  helpful  policy  toward  her;  and  since  our  geo- 
graphical position  gives  decided  advantage  over  that  of 
the  European  nations,  let  us  conclude  that  as  a reason- 
able and  natural  reward  America’s  white  sails  of  peace 
on  the  Pacific  will  be  increased  tenfold,  probably  a hun- 
dredfold, within  the  next  quarter  of  a century,  and  that 


A BRILLIANT  FUTURE. 


421 


likewise  great  ships  from  Japan,  flying  the  red  banner 
of  the  Rising  Sun,  will  be  a familiar  sight  in  the  chief 
ports  on  our  Gulf  and  Atlantic  coasts. 

And  if  the  giant  Republic  of  America  will  always  set 
the  example,  and  the  first  Constitutional  Monarchy  of 
Asia  will  always  follow  that  example,  of  standing  for 
human  freedom  and  progress,  the  eternal  principles  of 
justice  and  philanthropy,  recognizing  the  rights  of  the 
weak  as  well  as  of  the  strong,  according  to  the  teachings 
of  Christ,  then  the  combined  influence  of  these  two 
countries  upon  the  future  history  of  the  far  East  will 
be  full  of  blessing  and  glory. 


INDEX. 


Aboriginal,  tribes,  41,  55. 

Adams,  William,  story  of  in  Japan,  144  ff. 

Ain  us  (Emishi),  41,  5G. 

Amaterasu  (sun  goddess) : Chief  god,  40,54;  mother  of  imperial  ancestors, 
her  shrine  at  Ise,  40,  50;  ordained  food  for  mankind,  40. 

Americans  and  Japan:  Interest  in  Nicaraguan  Canal,  143;  in  position  to 
open  Japan,  283;  legation  attacks  in  Yedo,  309;  ships  with  allied  fleet 
in  bombarding  Shimonoseki  Heights,  312;  Government’s  (at  Washing- 
ton) position  concerning  official  outlawry  of  Christianity,  402;  exam- 
ples of  helpful  policy,  404;  contribute  to  language,  literature,  409; 
future  intercourse  and  trade,  20,  419;  the  “open  door”  for  both  in 
China,  419;  future  policy  of  the  two  countries,  421. 

Anjiro,  a Japanese,  accompanied  St.  Xavier  from  Goa  to  Japan,  108. 

Architecture:  Buddhist  temples,  models  of,  93;  Eastern  Asia  and 
Europe  contrasted,  24S. 

Arts  in  Japan:  Flower  art,  279;  patronized  by  court  nobles,  and  some 
of  the  Shoguns,  125,217;  exhibits  of  at  International  Expositions,  241, 
344;  union  of  liberal  and  industrial,  247 ; growth  of  in  Eastern  Asia  and 
Europe,  248;  the  human  form  in  Greek  and  Japanese  contrasted,  248; 
Japan’s  debt  to  China,  248;  golden  age  of,  248;  conditions  of  develop- 
ment, 248  ff. ; materials  and  forms  of,  251  ff.;  defects  of,  254, 264;  decora- 
tion, 260,  274. 

Bamboo:  Groves,  21;  uses  of,  22. 

Bank  of  Japan,  350. 

Berry,  Dr.,  pioneer  medical  missionary  and  services  to  Japan,  361. 

Bingham:  Judge  of  Ohio,  American  minister,  402;  champion  of  Japan’s 
national  rights,  402,  403. 

Black,  John,  Englishman,  founder  of  first  newspaper,  355  (footnote). 

Brinkley,  Capt.,  Editor  Japan  Mail , high  authority  on  Japanese  arts, 
274,  277. 

Bronze  Work  and  Sculpture,  discussed,  258,  263. 

Bryan,  Paul,  Washington,  D.  C.,  organized  postal  system,  407. 

Buddhism  (see  Shaka  Muni):  Brought  from  Korea  into  Japan  (A.D.  555), 
58;  opposition  to,  58,  60;  adopted  by  Empress  Suiko,  60;  doctrines  of, 
62,  66;  moral  teachings,  64;  modified  form  of  in  Japan,  64;  eating  of 
flesh  forbidden,  19,  64;  became  the  established  religion  during  Nava 
period  (see  Nara),  66;  priests  at  court,  66,  93;  compromised  with  Shin- 
toism, 66, 67;  popularized  by  itinerant  preaching,  67 ; finally  triumphant, 
67  ff.;  influence  of  upon  civilization  and  arts,  92,  93;  priests  become  rich 
and  immoral,  93;  priestly  class  in  Tokugawa  era,  175;  resemblance  to 
Romanism  and  differences,  237;  temples,  238 ff.;  the  priest’s  duties,  etc., 
241  ff. ; festivals.  243  ff.;  under  Tokugawas,  the  established  religion,  245; 
disestablished  after  the  Restoration,  327;  priests  adopt  methods  of 

(422) 


INDEX, 


423 


Christian  missionaries,  374;  stir  up  persecutions,  392,  414;  a. doomed  re- 
ligion, 415;  college  at  Kioto,  374 

Capkon’s,  Gen.,  scientific  staff  and  their  services  to  government,  407. 

Centennial  Exposition:  Japanese  art  exhibit  at,  344. 

Castles  and  castle  walls,  125. 

Cha  No  Yu,  high  tea  ceremonial,  125. 

Chamberlain,  Basil:  Professor  of  the  Imperial  University,  45;  transla- 
tor of  the  Ko-ji-ki,  38;  was  exorcised  by  priests,  212. 

Chang,  Li  Hung,  Chinese  Ambassador  at  treaty  with  Japan  (1895),  3SG. 

Children,  birth  and  training,  179-181. 

China:  Mother  of  earlier  Japanese  civilization,  46,  58,  69;  assisted  Korea 
vs.  Hideyoshi  (1592),  119;  claimed  Formosa,  343;  affected  contempt  of 
Japan’s  reforms,  344;  claimed  suzerainty  over  Korea,  385;  to  be  in- 
fluenced by  Japan,  418. 

Choshu,  Lord  of  (Daimyo) : Attempted  coup  d’etat  at  Kioto,  and  is  dis- 
graced, 310;  marches  again  upon  the  capital,  310;  fires  upon  foreign 
vessels  from  Shimonoseki  heights,  and  allied  foreign  fleet  chastises  him, 
312. 

Christianity  (Protestant):  Enters  Japan  (1859),  322;  outlawed  by  gov- 
ernment of  the  Restoration  (1869),  320,  326;  edicts  against  taken  down 
(1872),  329;  first  Christian  Church,  330;  anti-Christian  feeling  bitter  in 
1873,  340;  second  church,  359;  opposition  still,  360;  examples  of  stead- 
fastness, 359;  native  churches  quickened  by  Osaka  Conference,  364; 
favoring  circumstances,  369;  organized  enemies,  371;  reaction  vs. 
foreign  ideas  and  Christianity,  391;  expulsion  of  Rev.  Tamura  by 
native  Presbyterians,  394;  scientific  skepticism  rife,  396;  Nippon  Shugi 
movement  vs.  Christianity,  397;  Christianity  will  triumph,  416;  native 
Christians  in  high  official  positions,  416;  not  yet  a Christian  empire, 
414  (see  Roman  Catholics). 

Chrysanthemum:  National  flower,  19;  Prof.  Chamberlain’s  description 
of,  119. 

Clare,  Col.  Wm.  S,  president  agricultural  college  at  Sapporo,  407. 

Climate:  Wide  extremes  of,  15;  delightful  autumns,  16;  rainy  season,  17. 

Cloisonne  Work,  261. 

Coal,  bituminous,  abundant,  35. 

. Columbus,  studied  Marco  Polo’s  maps  containing  Zipangu  (Japan),  35, 
142. 

Copper,  largely  exported  by  the  Dutch  to  Europe,  35. 

Correll,  Rev.  Irving  II.,  made  first  evangelistic  tour  in  interior,  359. 

Cows:  Used  for  plowing  and  carts,  25;  no  butter,  little  milk,  25:  beef  cat- 
tle scarce,  25,  26. 

Cryptomerias,  21. 

Daimyo  (Great  Name) : Provincial  landlord,  85;  vassal  to  the  Shogun,  98; 
in  later  Middle  Ages  almost  independent,  105,  107;  in  Tokugawa  era, 
171;  his  retinue  described,  225  fl'.;  southern  Daimyos  refuse  allegiance 
to  Shogun,  313;  voluntary  surrender  of  holdings  to  Emperor,  335;  re- 
ceived indemnity,  336;  Daimyo  of  Echizen’s  farewell  to  his  retainers, 
337  ff. 


424 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


Damascening,  three  forms  of,  260. 

Divorce,  frequent,  and  causes  of,  190. 

Dragon  (see  under  Art),  253. 

Dutch:  Surgeons  and  botanists  with  trading  post  at  Nagasaki,  17;  King 
of  Holland's  letter  to  Japanese  rulers,  144;  trading  settlement  in  Dc- 
shima  island,  at  Nagasaki,  144;  other  Europeans  expelled,  150;  merce- 
nary spirit  of,  280;  submit  to  indignities,  281;  influence  of  Dutch  learn- 
ing in  Japan,  314. 

Earthquakes  and  Volcanoes:  Described,  8-13;  writer’s  experiences  of, 
13. 

Education:  First  schools  were  for  nobles  at  court  by  Wani  and  his  sons, 
70;  Chinese  classics  introduced,  70;  Chinese  styles  affected,  71,  93; 
commons  ignorant,  96;  University  (so-called)  at  Kioto,  93;  little  prog- 
ress in  from  1192  to  1603,  126;  schooling,  Tokugawa  era,  182;  modern 
system  of,  347 ; English  taught  in,  347;  Imperial  University,  347;  mis- 
sion schools,  366;  imperial  rescript  on,  386;  early  educational  influ- 
ences were  American,  405;  Americans  professors  in  Imperial  Univer- 
sity, 406;  services  of  other  Americans  in  education,  406  fif. ; school  for 
peeresses  under  patronage  of  Empress,  347. 

Efumi  (cross  trampling),  139. 

Embassy:  Sent  by  Shogun  to  Washington,  307;  another  to  Europe  and 
return,  311;  later  another  to  America  and  Europe,  mission  a failure, 
329,  330. 

English  (British) : Captain  Saris  seeks  trade  in  Japan  (1613  A.D.),  146;  his 
journey  overland  to  Shogun’s  seat,  146  ff. ; audience  with  Shogun,  and 
offers  King  James  I.’s  letter  and  presents,  148;  unable  to  compete  with 
Dutch,  abandon  Japanese  trade,  149,  280;  seek  to  open  trade  again  in 
nineteenth  century,  280;  demand  indemnity  of  Shogun  for  murder  of 
Richardson,  309;  fleet  bombard  Kagoshima,  311;  English  Minister,  Sir 
Harry  Parks,  attacked  in  streets  of  Kioto,  307. 

Eta,  an  outcast  race,  admitted  to  citizenship,  391. 

Exorcists  and  impostors,  242. 

Exposition  in  Paris,  Japan’s  exhibits  at,  344. 

Extraterrioriality:  Repugnant  to  Japanese,  329;  abolished  (1899)  by 
new  treaties  with  Western  powers,  398. 

Farming:  Formation  of  country,  205;  system  of  described,  206  flf.;  irriga- 
tion and  terracing,  206. 

Faulds,  Dr.,  medical  missionary,  361. 

Fauna:  Poor,  25;  domestic  animals,  25,  28;  wild,  26,  27;  birds,  28;  rep- 
tiles, 29;  insects  numerous,  30. 

Fenollosa,  Prof.,  services  to  Japan  as  Art  Commissioner,  408. 

Festivals,  Shinto,  233. 

Feudalism:  Foundations  laid,  82  flf. ; Yoritomo’s  system  of,  98  flf.;  Iyeya- 
su’s  account  of,  135;  abolished  (1869),  334,  336. 

Fillmore,  President,  letter  of,  to  Japan’s  ruler,  284,  289. 

Fish,  abundant,  33,  34. 

Flora:  Wealth  of,  17;  prevalent  types  of,  18;  domesticated  plants  im- 
ported from  Continent,  18;  the  fine  cereals,  18;  fruit  trees  few,  18; 


INDEX. 


425 


wild  flowers  and  flowering  shrubs,  19;  Japanese  flora  related  to  Ap- 
palachian kingdom  (see  Prof.  Asa  Gray  on),  21. 

Flower  art,  279. 

Flower:  Festival,  199  ff.;  dolls  and  flags,  202, 

Formosa:  Imbroglio  concerning  with  China  settled,  343;  ceded  to 
Japan,  2. 

Foster,  Hon.  John  W.,  Chinese  Counselor,  in  making  treaty  with 
Japan,  386. 

Fox  gods:  Divine,  26;  shrines  and  images  of,  231. 

France  joined  Russia  in  demands  upon  Japan  for  retrocession  of  Liau- 
Tung  Peninsula,  386. 

Fukuzawa,  Mr.:  Famous  schoolmaster  and  editor,  369;  favors  adoption 
of  Christianity  by  government,  369. 

Fujiyama,  the  sacred  mountain,  described,  9 ff. 

Fujuwara  House:  Claimed  divine  descent  with  the  imperial  family,  81; 
powei’ful  at  court  as  regent  and  prime  ministers,  80  ff. ; held  office  of 
Kwanbaku , 82. 

Germany  joined  Russia  in  demands  upon  Japan,  386. 

Gold  mines  in  earlier  times,  35. 

Gotoba,  ex-Emperor,  famous  sword  smith,  123. 

Grant,  Gen.  U.  S.:  On  German  Consul's  conduct  in  Japan,  403;  on 
American  policy  in  Japan,  404;  received  as  nation’s  guest,  405. 

Gregorian  calendar  adopted,  357. 

Hara  kiri  explained,  144  ff. 

Harris,  Townsend:  Training,  293;  Christian  character,  298 ; first  consul 
general  to  Japan  (1885),  293;  difficulties  with  Japanese  officials,  294; 
isolation,  295;  after  years  delay  bore  President’s  letter  to  Shogun  in 
Yedo,  295 ; journey  thither  and  audience  with  Shogun,  296  ff. ; treaty  with 
Shogun  made,  301;  opposition  to  aroused,  298;  Mr.  Harris  and  Com- 
modore Percy  compared,  303;  his  secretary  and  interpreter,  Mr.  Heus- 
ken,  assassinated  by  the  Japanese,  306;  appointed  American  minister 
to  Japan,  306. 

Heimin  (common  people)  admitted  into  body  politic,  337. 

IIeizan  (mountain),  seat  of  famous  Buddhist  monastery,  etc.,  67. 

Hepburn,  Dr,  author  of  English- Japanese  Dictionary,  362;  chairman 
of  Osaka  Conference,  363. 

Hideyoshi  (Taiko  Sama) : Began  as  Nobunaga’s  horse  boy,  116;  succeed- 
ed Nobunaga,  114;  opposed  by  southern  Daimyos,  115;  attacks  Kago- 
shima, brings  Lord  Shimadzu  to  terms,  115;  his  administrative  reforms, 
116;  rebuilds  Osaka  castle  and  improves  city,  115, 116;  his  gourd  ban- 
ner, 116;  seeks  Iyeyasu’s  support  and  brings  Hojos,  in  the  Kwanto,  to 
terms,  117;  transfers  eight  Kwanto  provinces  to  Iyeyasu,  117;  pacifies 
the  country  (1590  A.D.),  118;  invades  Korea,  118  ff.;  recalls  troops  just 
before  dying,  120;  at  first  friendly  to  the  Christians,  afterwards  a per- 
secutor, 121;  motives  assigned  by  the  Jesuits,  122. 

Hongwanji,  noted  temple  in  Kioto,  240. 

Honshiu,  main  island,  3. 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


426 

Hot  Springs,  numerous,  14;  superstitious  concerning,  14. 

House  of  Commons:  Liberal  party  of,  opposes  cabinet’s  policy,  383;  the 
real  issue  touching  question  of  responsible  ministry,  384. 

Houses:  Structure  and  plan, -156;  interior  arrangements  for  eating,  work- 
ing, and  sleeping,  158,  223. 

Hubbard,  ex-governor,  American  minister  to  Japan,  favored  revision 
of  treaties,  404. 

Ihai,  ancestral  tablets,  334. 

Ii  Kamon,  Lord  of  Hakone:  Regent,  304;  his  bold  policy  vs.  anti-foreign 
party,  305;  assassinated  March,  1S60,  305;  confusion  followed,  306. 

Image,  great,  of  Buddha,  GO,  262. 

Imperial  insignia,  40,  231;  party,  made  a coup  d’etat,  315. 

Incarnation  (see  Doctrines  of  Buddhism),  66. 

Infidelity,  imported  from  Christian  lands,  415. 

Inland  Sea,  its  beauty,  etc.,  3. 

Inundations,  destructive,  13,  14. 

Inlaying,  in  cast  iron,  art  of,  260. 

Inn,  at  a Japanese  in  the  olden  times,  222  ff. 

Ito,  Count:  Prime  minister,  356;  influence  as  Privy  Councilor,  367; 
champion  of  Western  civilization,  369;  represented  in  treaty  with 
China,  386;  commissioner  to  prepare  modern  code  of  laws,  356. 

Iwakura,  Prince:  head  of  embassy  to  foreign  countries  (1872),  327;  con- 
fronted at  Washington,  D.  C.,  with  question  of  government  outlawry 
of  Christians,  329;  assassinated,  340. 

Iyeyasu:  Founder  of  Tokugawa  dynasty  of  Shoguns,  128;  tomb  at  Nikko, 
22,  133,  248;  built  castle  and  capital  at  village  of  lredo,  117,  132;  after 
succession  to  Ilideyoshi’s  power,  opposed  by  league  of  Southern  Confed- 
erates, 129;  moderation  toward  conquered  enemies,  131;  ability  as 
general,  as  administrator  of  government,  132;  Tokugawa  era  described, 
133 IT.;  his  legacy  or  code,  137 ; policy  of  excluding  Europeans,  150  ff. ; 
made  Japan  a hermit  nation,  152. 

Izanagt  and  Izanari,  parents  of  the  race,  39,  . 

Iz anari’s  descent  to  Hades,  39;  Izanagi’s  search  for  her  and  his  purifica- 
tion, 39, 

Jackson,  Andrew:  Strong  foreign  policy  of,  281;  commissioned  Mr. 
Roberts  to  bear  a letter  to  Japan’s  rulers. 

Japan:  An  archipelago,  2;  boundaries  of,  and  geological  position,  1;  area, 
2;  new  American  possessions  in  N,-E.  and  S.  W.,  2;  section  of  an  ocean 
ladder,  2;  the  four  chief  islands,  3;  physiography  of,  6 ff.;  scenery  of 
picturesque,  17;  poetical  names  of,  45. 

Japan  (nation):  Origin  of,  41;  a mixed  race,  42;  Yamato  Japanese  the 
ruling  tribe,  42,  49,  55,  82;  will  lead  political  reform  in  Orient,  417;  a 
maritime  people,  418;  commands  recognition  in  international  affairs 
of  Far  East,  418;  characteristics  of,  45,  153;  modes  of  living  and  work- 
ing, 154:  strange  ways,  167,  169;  politeness,  177;  lively  and  gay,  245. 

Jesuitism:  In  Japan,  92;  Jesuits  and  Franciscans  quarrel,  121, 136;  sus- 
pected of  intrigue  vs.  government,  131,  138,  151;  celebrate  canoniza- 
tion of  Loyola  with  great  pomp  at  Nagasaki,  139, 


INDEX. 


427 


JimmuTenno:  First  Emperior,  41 ; his  tribal  wars,  43;  limited  sway  of,  55, 
56;  campaign  from  Kiushiu  to  Yamato,  55. 

Jingo  Kogo:  Queen  (200  A.D.),  56;  invaded  Korea,  57. 

JUNSHI,  44. 

Kago  (sedan  chair),  traveling  by,  159. 

Kamakura:  Founded  by  Yoritomo,  89;  new  military  capital,  91;  rival  of 
Kioto  in  wealth  and  splendor,  125,  265. 

Kharma,  law  of  (see  under  Doctrines  of  Buddhism),  62. 

Kido:  Leader  in  Restoration,  821;  memorialized  throne  touching  abolition 
of  feudalism,  335. 

Kioto:  Second  fixed  capital,  66, 117 ; center  of  Buddhism,  69;  a rich  Orien- 
tal capital,  83;  afterwards  eclipsed  by  Kamakura,  92,  97;  in  ruins,  105. 

Kirin,  the,  262  (see  under  Art). 

Kites,  and  kite  flying,  204. 

Kiushiu:  One  of  the  four  islands,  3;  first  settlement  of  Jimmu  Tenno  in, 
55;  coal  mines  abundant  in,  35;  first  section  of  Japan  seen  by  Europe- 
ans, 107. 

Kiyomori:  Head  of  Taira  Clan,  84;  in  supreme  power,  87;  dying  words, 
89. 

Kobo  Daishi,  priest  and  inventor  of  Japanese  syllabary,  93. 

Ko-ji-ki:  The  oldest  extant  book,  37;  source  of  Japanese  traditions,  etc., 
37,  38,  40. 

Konishi,  a Christian  general,  119,  129,  139. 

Korea:  Civilizing  influences  of,  46;  tributary  to  Japan,  57  ff. ; invaded  by 
Hicleyoshi,  118. 

Kublai  Khan,  conqueror  of  China,  sent  powerful  fleet  against  Japan, 
104. 

Kusunoki,  model  of  patriotism  and  loyalty  to  the  Emperor,  103. 

Kwansei  Gakuin,  mission  college  of  Southern  Methodists,  29. 

Kwanto,  Eastern  Japan  in  earlier  times,  117, 128. 

Lacquer  work,  discussed,  255  ff. 

Lake  Biwa,  5. 

LambuTh,Rev.  James  W.,  D.D.,  a veteran  missionary  to  China,  then  Ja- 
pan, 370. 

Lahbuth,  Rev.  Walter  R.,  D.D.,  M.D.:  First  a medical  missionary  in 
China,  371;  zeal  and  quick  success  in  Japan,  371. 

Landscape  gardening,  278,  279. 

Lanius,  Dr.,  one  of  the  pioneer  medical  missionaries,  361. 

Laws:  Shotoku’s  Code  the  first,  72;  the  “Taikwa  Reforms,”  72;  Tailio 
Statutes,  75;  new  Western  codes,  adopted  and  proclaimed,  400. 

Legendre,  Gen.,  and  others  rendered  service  in  organizing  Japanese 
navy,  408. 

Literature  and  Language:  Ko-ji-ki  (Record  of  Ancient  Things),  oldest 
book,  34,  54;  Nihongi  (Chronicles),  next  oldest,  37;  use  of  letters  began 
circ.  400  A.D.,  10;  national  annals  compiled  (620  A.D.),  46,  57;  Chinese 
learning  followed  Buddhism,  69;  Chinese  characters,  72,  93. 

Manufacturing,  cotton  mills,  353. 


428 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 

M arco  Polo:  In  China,  34;  stories  of  gold  in  Japan,  34;  his  maps  showed 
Zipangu  (Japan),  35. 

Marriage  ceremonies,  182  ff. 

Masamune,  famous  swordsmith,  and  Myochin  family  ditto,  123. 

Massacre  of  Christians  at  Shimabara,  141. 

McCartee,  Dr.,  venerable  missionary  and  a pioneer  teacher  in  Universi- 
ty of  Tokyo,  405. 

Mexico,  trade  from  to  Japan  in  seventeenth  century,  143. 

Michizane  Sugawara:  Emperor’s  counselor  and  teacher,  80;  banished, 
died,  then  was  canonized,  80. 

Mikado  (Emperor):  Son  of  Ilcaven,  49,  170;  head  of  Shinto  cult  and  wor- 
shiped as  divine,  49,  236;  he  performed  in  primitive  times  lustration 
rites  for  the  people,  50,  236;  a few  versed  in  Chinese  Classics,  71;  be- 
came effeminate,  84;  power  wrested  by  the  Shoguns,  97;  his  court  no- 
bles, 170;  his  court  opposed  to  foreign  treaties  and  opening  of  country, 
209,  302,  305;  conflict  between  two  courts  of  Kioto  and  Yedo,  307,  313; 
ordered  Barbarians  to  be  “brushed  away,”  309;  finally  ratified  treaty 
made  with  Perry,  313;  Mikado  dies,  and  the  youth  Mutsuhito  ascends 
the  throne  as  Emperor  of  the  Restoration,  314,  317;  his  oath,  318;  new 
government  organized,  319;  edict  vs.  Christianity  renewed,  320,  326; 
capital  removed  to  Y'edo  (Tokyo),  320;  ordered  Roman  Catholics  de- 
ported, 320;  opened  Japan’s  first  parliament,  383. 

Mikoshi,  234. 

Milnes,  Prof.,  on  earthquakes,  14. 

Mimizuka  (monument  of  ears),  120. 

Minamoto  Clan:  Descent,  S4  (see  Y'oritomo). 

Minerals,  34  ff. 

Mirrors  of  steel,  £62. 

Missions,  Foreign,  in  Japan:  First  entrance  (1859),  322;  missionaries 
persecuted,  322,  326;  of  native  Christians  ditto,  325;  lay  foundation  of 
modern  education,  348;  first  preaching  in  the  interior,  359;  policy  of 
touching  mission  schools  broad,  360;  medical  missions,  361,  366;  literary 
work  of,  362;  New  Testament  published,  360;  theological  schools  found- 
ed, 366;  missions  a bond  between  Japan  and  Western  countries,  412. 

Mississippi,  Perry’s  flagship,  284. 

Mori,  Viscount,  and  Western  education,  346. 

Mulberry  plantations,  217. 

Murray,  LL.D.,  Daniel,  services  to  educational  department,  406. 

Murray,  historian,  on  policy  of  excluding  foreigners  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  280. 

Mythologies:  Our  knowledge  of,  37;  Kami  (gods),  38;  origin  of  world, 
39;  meaning  of  word  Kami , 47,  48;  progenitors  of  race,  38;  myths  and 
art,  41;  relation  of  Japanese  race  to  sun  goddess  (Amaterasu),  41;  “ di- 
vine age,”  54;  names  of  gods  and  goddesses,  48;  truth  in  their  myth- 
ology, 54 

Nara,  first  fixed  capital,  65;  temple  of  Zodaiji  and  great  image  of  Buddha, 
66,  261;  pilgrims’  and  tourists’  visit,  65. 

Neeshima,  Joseph  Hardy,  375  ff. 


INDEX. 


429 


Newspaper  first  published,  355. 

Nicaraguan  Canal,  3,  420. 

Nicolai,  Bishop,  381. 

Ninigi,  grandson  of  sun  goddess,  and  great-grandfather  of  Jitnmu  Tenno, 
40,  55. 

Nirvana  (see  under  Buddhism),  63. 

Nitobe,  Pli.D.,  Inazo,  author  of  “Intercourse  between  United  States 
and  Japan,”  402;  his  opinion  of  German  and  American  education,  411. 

Nitta  Yoshisada,  espoused  imperial  cause  vs.  Shogun,  103. 

Oil  (kerosene)  wells,  35;  American  and  Russian  import  of,  35,  36. 

Okubo,  leader  in  restoration,  assassinated,  319;  characteristics  and  predi- 
lections for  foreign  ideas,  342. 

Okuma,  Count,  State  councilor,  advocated  national  assembly,  356; 
wounded  by  dynamite  shell  in  Tokyo,  404,  405. 

Orange,  the,  18. 

Osaka  Missionary  Conference,  363. 

Osaka  (Naniha),  city  of,  41,  55. 

Ota  Nobun aga:  First  of  the  three  great  men  in  power,  109;  attempts  to 
pacify  country  in  name  of  Emperor,  110;  hates  Buddhist  priests,  110, 
favors  Roman  Catholics,  111;  perishes  by  treachery  of  one  of  his  gen- 
erals, 111;  opinons  of,  by  Buddhists  and  Jesuits,  111,  112. 

Pacific  Ocean  and  Oriental  trade:  Currenti  of, 282;  junks  drifted, bear- 
ing Japanese  alive,  to  American  shores,  282,  283;  a great  highway  of 
future  commerce,  420;  cables  from  American  shores  to  Hawaii,  Manila, 
and  Japan,  420. 

Painting,  art  and  schools  of,  264  ff. 

Papenburg  Rock,  141. 

Paper  Making,  219  ff. 

Paradise  ,'see  Buddhism),  64. 

Parks,  Sir  Harry,  and  suite  attacked,  317. 

Perry,  Commodore  Matthew  C.:  Character,  281;  training,  284;  his  fleet, 
284,  290;  arrived  in  Yedo  Bay,  286;  accurate  knowledge  of  Japanese 
character  and  manners,  287 ; brought  cargo  of  useful  machinery,  etc., 
as  presents,  291 ; refused  to  be  treated  like  the  Dutch  at  Nagasaki,  287; 
no  business  with  Japanese  on  Sunday,  287;  second  visit  to  Japan,  290; 
made  a treaty,  291;  what  he  accomplished  and  how,  292;  death  in  New 
York  and  grave  at  Newport,  292. 

Persimmons,  18, 

Philippines,  2, 126. 

Physicians  and  medicines,  161  ff . 

Pierce,  President,  293. 

Pinto  Mendez  (Portuguese)  went  to  Japan  (1545),  107. 

Piracy  by  Japanese  upon  foreign  coasts,  126. 

Political  rule  and  ideas  (primitive),  54;  gradual  conquest  of  Japan, 
56;  Chinese  models  of  rank,  ceremony,  and  administration  adopted, 
72;  codes  of  laws  based  upon  Chinese  system,  72  ff. ; “ Child  emperors,” 
81;  court  nobles  at  Kioto  supplemented  by  military  lords  (see  Sho- 
gun); duarchy  explained,  97;  northern  and  southern  dynasties,  104; 


430 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


Emperors  sunk  low  and  civil  disorder  prevailed,  104;  government  of 
the  Restoration,  343;  reforms  after  foreign  models  adopted,  345  ff.;  con- 
stitution proclaimed,  356;  first  parliament,  383;  suffrage  limited,  383. 

Polo,  Marco,  107. 

Porcelain  (kaolin)  stone  abundant,  36. 

Portuguese:  Monopoly  of  Japan’s  trade  for  a century,  142;  first  Euro- 
peans to  visit  that  country,  107;  effect  of  intercourse  upon  Jajiancse, 
126;  bad  morals  of,  150. 

Post  runners  and  post  houses,  222. 

Pottery  and  pottery  wares,  270  ff. 

Primitive  life.  Habits,  etc.,  42  ff.;  family  life  and  morals,  46. 

Primitive  religion:  Shinto  the  native  religion,  47,  49  (see  Kami  under 
Mythologies);  names  of  gods,  48;  nature  and  ancestor  worship,  49; 
Emperor  head  of  Shinto  cult,  49;  no  dogmas,  50;  palace  and  temple 
one,  50;  Emperor  performs  rites  of  purification,  50;  offerings  and  sac- 
rifices, 51,  52;  human  sacrifices,  53;  fox  god,  26;  sacred  trees  and  an- 
imals, 53,  232;  national  shrine,  229;  temples  described,  259  ff.;  priests, 
231  ff. ; household  gods,  235;  a doomed  religion,  415. 

Red  Cross  Society  in  Japan,  386. 

Rein’s,  view,  112. 

Rice  growing,  207  ff. 

Richardson,  an  Englishman,  cut  down  by  the  Lord  of  Satsuma’s  guards, 
308. 

Riu,  Yano,  first  Christian  baptized,  329. 

Riukiu  (Loochoos),  conquest  of,  127. 

Rivers,  short  and  rapid,  8. 

Roman  Catholics  (see  Jesuitism):  St.  Xavier  entered  (1549)  followed  by 
Portuguese  and  Spanish  priests,  109;  success  during  Nobunaga’s  power, 
112;  built  churches,  monasteries,  and  schools,  113, 135;  sent  an  embassy 
of  Christian  princes  from  Japan  to  the  pope  of  Rome,  113, 114;-  at  first 
favored,  then  bitterly  persecuted  by  Hideyoshi,  121;  persecutions  con- 
tinued under  Iyeyasu,  136  ff. ; fortitude  of  native  Christians  in  spite  of 
cruel  tortures,  140;  massacre  of  the  Christians  at  Shimabara,  141; 
propagandist  reentered  Japan  after  country  opened  by  Commodore 
Perry,  381;  remnant  of  Catholic  community  discovered  near  Nagasaki 
(1868),  320,  321;  statistics  of,  381. 

Ronin,  the  forty-seven,  story  of,  195  ff. 

Russia:  Siberian  Russia,  1;  Russians  seek  trade  with  Japan  in  nine- 
teenth century,  280;  attempted  murder  of  crown  prince  by  Japanese 
policeman.  392;  Czar  accepts  apology  for  same  from  Emperor  of  Japan, 
394;  interferes  with  China-Japan  treaty,  386;  Russo -Greek  Church  in 
Japan,  381. 

Saigo,  leader  of  Satsiunara  rebellion  (1877)  and  death  in  battle,  341. 

Salutation,  etiquette  of,  177. 

Samurai  (military  gentry),  84,  123;  despised  manual  labor  and  trade,  123; 
in  Tokugawa  era,  172;  stirred  against  opening  the  country  to  foreign- 
ei*s,  309;  after  the  Restoration  still  hostile  to  foreigners,  324;  under  the 
new  regime,  345;  as  policemen,  349. 


INDEX. 


431 


Satow,  Hon.  Eknest,  British  Minister  ami  translator  of  ancient  rituals, 
43. 

“ Savage  Deities  ” and  “earth  spiders,”  meaning  of,  54,  41,  43. 

Sekigahaka,  decisive  battle  of,  129  ff. 

Seward,  Hon.  William  II.,  in  influence  of  United  Sates  in  Japan,  346. 

Shaka  Muni  (Dai  Butsu),  founder  of  Indian  Buddhism,  62. 

Shikoku,  one  of  the  four  chief  islands,  3. 

Shimadzu,  lord  of  Salsuma,  and  head  of  tire  clan,  115,  308,  360. 

Shogun:  Meaning  of  word,  92;  relations  to  the  Mikado  or  Emperor,  97; 
their  vassels  and  military  nobles,  170;  Yoritomo,  head  of  Minamoto 
clan,  founded  military  capital  and  was  first  of  Shogun  line,  92;  end  of 
the  Minamoto  line,  100;  Ilojo  Shogun  succeeds,  100;  repel  Tartar  inva- 
sion, 100-102;  end  of  Ilojos,  103;  Ashikaga  line  succeeds,  104;  patrons 
of  art,  271;  a Shogun’s  retinue,  228. 

Shotoku:  Prince  and  Regent  under  Empress  Suiko,  60;  champion  of  Bud- 
dhism, 61;  adopts  Chinese  models  of  government,  72. 

Silkworm:  Natural  history  of,  31;  silk  culture,  216  ff. 

Social  Classes  and  Noble  Families:  classed  according  to  descent,  76; 
origin  of  tribal  and  family  names  explained,  77  ff. ; rise  of  ruling  fam- 
ilies, 80;  rise  of  military  nobles,  83;  ranks  and  classes  in  Tokugawa 
era,  170  ff. ; the  commons  174  ff. ; peasantry,  condition  of,  206. 

Sokoban  (abacus),  use  of,  165. 

Spaniards:  Exported  silver  from  Japan, 35;  expelled  in  17thcentui*y, 280. 

Store,  dry  goods,  165,  167. 

Students:  Japanese,  sent  by  Shogun  to  Holland  before  the  Revolution, 
354;  eagerness  for  English  language,  34S;  great  number  of  in  America, 
409-411 ; female  students,  411. 

Suinin,  Emperor  abolished  Junshi  (B.C.  44),  29. 

Tachibuna,  house  of  (see  House  of  Orange),  79, 83, 

Taira  Clan,  head  of,  claimed  descent  from  an  Emperor  (see  Kiyomori), 
S7. 

Taxes,  in  kind  upon  soil,  205. 

Taylor,  Dr.,  pioneer  medical  missionary,  361. 

Tea:  Raising,  210  fi'. ; curing,  212  ff. ; high  tea  ceremonial,  271;  always 
served  to  guests,  178. 

Temple  bells,  262. 

Temples:  Shinto  (see  under  Primitive  religion)  Buddhist,  (see  under 
Buddhism). 

Tobacco  and  pipes,  215. 

Tokyo  (Yedo),  5. 

Toleration,  religious,  137. 

Tortoise,  30;  see  under  Art,  252, 

Trade  : Opened  by  Portuguese  in  16th  century,  107 ; Japanese  trading  set- 
tlement s on  China  and  other  foreign  coasts  in  Asia,  126;  made  voyages 
to  Mexico,  India,  and  Borneo,  127;  time  of  voyage  on  Pacific  shortened 
and  flag  of  the  Rising  Sun  to  be  seen  in  our  ports,  420;  Japan’s' 
trade  already  greatly  increased  in  the  East,  419. 

Transmigration,  doctrine  of  in  Buddhism,  62. 


432 


japan:  country,  court,  people. 


Treaties:  With  foreign  powers,  303;  storm  followed,  306;  foreigners  at- 
tacked in  many  places,  307  ff.;  treaty  revision  agitated,  391;  new  trea- 
ties with  Western  nations  (July  17th,  1899),  398. 

Unitarianism:  Entered  (1S89)  and  made  vigorous  propaganda,  395;  in- 
fluence of  among  educated  classes,  395;  policy  of  compi'omisc  toward 
Buddhist  teachings,  395. 

Verbeck,  D.D.,  Rev.  Guido  F.:  Pioneer  missionary,  322, 325;  testifies  con- 
cerning gross  immorality  of  people,  328;  taught  in  Daimyo’s  school  at 
Nagasaki,  328;  he  and  others  founded  the  Tokyo  University,  and  was 
first  president  of  same,  348,  405. 

Wanikishi,  Korean  wise  man,  came  to  Japan  (circ.  300  A.D.)  and  taught 
the  crown  prince,  40,  57,  69. 

Wars:  Period  of  civil  strife  begun  (939  A.D.),  86;  of  Red  and  White  Ban- 
ners (Tairas  and  Minamo to  clans),  91;  battle  near  Shimonoseki  Straits, 
91,  92;  period  of  intrigue  and  anarchy,  99;  Tartar  fleet  destroyed,  102; 
Ilideyoshi’s  wars  in  Japan,  115, 117;  vs.  Korea,  118  ff.;  war  of  Southern 
Leaguers  vs.  Iyeyasu  and  battle  of  Sekigahara,  129;  battle  in  city  of 
Kioto  between  Regent’s  troops  and  Choshu,  311;  war  of  revolution  and 
restoration,  315;  outbreak  upon  foreigners  in  Hyogo  (Kob£),  316;  with 
China,  and  cause  thereof,  385;  conduct  of  by  Japanese,  385, 388;  treaty 
of  peace  made,  386;  results  of  victory  over  China,  389  ff. 

Webster,  Daniel,  favored  approaching  Japan  for  treaty,  2S4. 

Whalers:  American  in  Japanese  waters,  2S2;  cruel  treatment  by  na- 
tives, 283. 

Wilson,  Bishop  Alpheus  W.,  D.D.,  LL.D.:  Had  episcopal  charge  at 
planting  of  Southern  Methodist  Mission,  371;  his  views  of  present 
problems  in  Japan,  Introduction,  pp.  vii.,  viii. 

Winds:  Relation  to  climate,  16;  hot  and  cold,  16;  typhoon  (taifun)  is  a cy- 
clone on  the  sea,  16. 

Wistaria,  25. 

Xavier,  Saint:  Meets  in  Goa  Anjiro,  a Japanese,  108;  his  labors  in  Ja- 
pan, 108,  135;  death  in  Canton  River,  109. 

Yamato-Dake,  56. 

Y amato  district,  56. 

Yedo  (Tokyo),  founded  by  Iyeyasu,  117. 

Yezo,  large  northern  island  (Hokkaido),  3. 

Yoritomo:  Famous  leader  of  Minamoto  clan,  84,  85;  founder  of  Kamaku- 
ra capital  and  first  of  the  Shoguns,  92;  his  cruelty,  99. 

Yoshitsuxe:  Japanese  hero  and  brother  of  Yoritomo,  88;  put  to  death  by 
Yoritomo,  91. 


Zodiac,  251. 


Japan,  country,  court,  and  people. 


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